Table 1 Metabolic pathways and metabolic characteristics of different immune cells

Macrophage

M1 macrophages mainly rely on aerobic glycolysis

M2 macrophages mainly rely on OXPHOS and FAO

M2 macrophages mainly rely on OXPHOS and FAO

^14,21

Naive T cell

In a quiescent state with low metabolic activity

A main energy source and default metabolic program

A main energy source and way of glucose metabolism

^73,88,91

Effector T cell

With highly upregulated aerobic glycolysis, also known as the Warburg effect

Downregulated during T cell activation

Also upregulated, but less than aerobic glycolysis

^80,91

Memory T cell

Not the default metabolic program; promoting rapid recall response of CD8⁺ memory T cells; depending on intracellular glycogen; main metabolic pathway for G6P

An energy source and the default metabolic program; with fatty acids as the preferent metabolites in the survival environment with limited glucose

An energy source and the default metabolic program

^{73,76,80,84,88,91,95,97}

Treg cell

Not the default metabolic program

An energy source and the default metabolic program; with fatty acids as the preferent metabolites in the survival environment with limited glucose

An energy source and the default metabolic program

^{76,80,84,85,86,87,88,91,95,97}

Naive B cell

In a quiescent state with low metabolic activity

In a quiescent state with low metabolic activity

In a quiescent state with low metabolic activity

¹¹³

Activated B cell

Upregulated; B cells with chronic BAFF stimulation rapidly increase glycolysis; aerobic glycolysis not highlighted in nonneoplastic B cells; B1 cells have a higher rate of glycolysis than B2 cells

Germinal center B cells carry out active FAO

Upregulated; B1 cells have a higher rate of OXPHOS than B2 cells

^115,116,581

Neutrophil

Mainly rely on glycolysis for ATP production

Unclear

Very limited because of low mitochondrial density

¹³⁴

Dendritic cell

Upregulated during pathogen infection

Upregulated in activated dendritic cells

Upregulated in activated dendritic cells

^140,141

Natural killer cell

Indispensable for the anti-tumor effect

Enhance the responses against infection and cancer

Cover the metabolic demand at a quiescent state

^{149,150,151,152}

Group 2 innate lymphoid cell

Upregulated in the activated state

Supports the function during helminth infection

Always at steady state

^149,157,158

Group 3 innate lymphoid cell

Upregulated in the activated state

Unclear

Upregulated in the activated state

^158,160