Fig. 5
From: Redox regulation: mechanisms, biology and therapeutic targets in diseases
Redox signaling modulates metabolic reprogramming. a Proteins enter mitochondria through the intermembrane space via the disulfide relay mechanism. Substrates traverse the mitochondrial outer membrane via the TOM complex, where their free thiols are oxidized by Mia40, facilitating their translocation across the membrane or insertion into the inner membrane. The disulfide bonds of Mia40 are subsequently transferred to FAD, which then transfers its free electrons to cytochrome c. These electrons are then consumed by the electron transport chain to reduce O2 and generate H2O. b Disulfide relay substrates can be categorized into three groups: classical substrates, MTS-containing substrates, and complex substrates without MTS. c The insulin receptor and insulin-like growth factor receptor can activate the PI3K-AKT pathway and the RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK pathway, with PTEN regulating PI3K activation. The upregulated ratio of AMP to ATP can activate AMPK, thereby influencing the activation of TSC1/2. Free amino acids can activate mTORC1, thus impacting cell growth and the occurrence of autophagy
