Table 3 Pharmacological treatment of cardiovascular diseases

Perhexiline/ Etomoxir

Inhibit CPT1

Inhibit FAO, enhance glucose oxidation

Improve myocardial ischemia and heart failure

Trimetazidine

Block Long-chain 3-ketoacyl CoA Thioesterase

Inhibit FAO, increase glucose oxidation, Improve insulin sensitivity

Improve myocardial ischemia

Trimetazidine

Upregulate the expression of AMPK and PPAR-α

Facilitate the absorption of energy substrates and protein expression, especially ketones

Improve heart failure

Trimetazidine

Activate the AMPK/ERK pathway

Inhibiting FAO to enhance glucose oxidation

Reduce reperfusion injury

Trimetazidine

Activate the SIRT1-AMPK pathway

Enhance ATP production and SOD activity, while decreasing LPO, FFA, and NO levels

Improve myocardial infarction

Glucose-Insulin-Potassium (GIK) Solution

Reduce circulating free fatty acid levels

Inhibit FAO, Enhance Glycolysis

Reduce myocardial infarct size

Lipstatin-1

Reduce ROS

Reduce lipid peroxides

Reduce myocardial infarct size and ischemia-reperfusion injury

Simvastatin/Fluvastatin

Block the MVA pathway

Reduce lipid peroxides

Lower cholesterol levels, maintain normal heart function

Simvastatin

Activating the JAK/STAT3 pathway

Alleviate mitochondrial damage

Improve heart failure

Coenzyme Q10

Clear free radicals

Enhance mitochondrial energy production

Improve myocardial ischemia

Ferrostatin-1

Reduce ROS, prevent lipid peroxidation

Reduce iron death, maintain mitochondrial function

Protect myocardial cells

Mitotane

Reduce ROS

Reduce lipid peroxides

Rescue from DOX-induced cardiomyopathy

Dexrazoxane

Reduce ROS

Reduce lipid peroxides

Maintain mitochondrial function

Fenofibrate

Activate PPAR-α

Promote FAO, regulate cardiac energy metabolism, alleviate oxidative stress

Improve heart failure

Dichloroacetic Acid (DCA)

Inhibit PDK

Enhance glucose oxidation and reduce glycolysis

Reduce reperfusion injury

Carvedilol

Improve insulin resistance, reduce oxidative stress.

Enhance glucose oxidation

Improve heart failure

Pioglitazone

Activate PPAR-γ, Anti-inflammatory

Alleviate mitochondrial damage

Reduce reperfusion injury

Metformin

Activate AMPK

Increase glucose uptake, improve insulin resistance

Improve diabetic cardiomyopathy

Metformin

Up-regulate Sirt3, reduce the acetylation level of PGC-1a

Inhibit mitochondrial damage, improve mitochondrial respiratory function

Improve heart failure

Empagliflozin

Reduce pACC, CPT1, CD36; Enhance GLUT4

Block FAO, increase glucose uptake

Improve diabetic cardiomyopathy

SGLT2 Inhibitors

Increase levels of beta-hydroxybutyrate in the blood

Decrease energy demand, stabilize mitochondria

Improve energy metabolism in heart failure