Fig. 6

Fructose promotes differentiation of Th1 and Th17 cells via glutamine metabolism-dependent mTORC1 activation. Naïve T cells were cultured in glucose medium or fructose medium for 24 h or 3 days, with or without indicated cytokines and reagents (n = 3). a, b Western blot analysis of mTOR and phospho-mTOR (Ser2448) in T cells post 24 h culture. c–e The RNA level of Ifng (c) and frequencies of Th1 cells (d, e) in T cells post 3 days culture. f, g The RNA level of Tbx21 (f) and frequencies of T-bet⁺CD4⁺ T cells (g) in T cells post 3 days culture. h–j The RNA level of Il17a (h) and frequencies of Th17 cells (i, j) in T cells post 3 days culture. k, l The RNA level of Rorc (k) and frequencies of RORγt⁺CD4⁺ T cells (l) in T cells post 3 days culture. Unpaired two-tailed Student’s t tests were used to calculate statistical significance. Data are presented as mean ± SD. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001; ****p < 0.0001