Table 2 Multivariable logistic regression examining correlates of anxiety and depression.

From: Psychiatric symptoms and behavioral adjustment during the COVID-19 pandemic: evidence from two population-representative cohorts

	Odds Ratio (95% Confidence Interval)
	Survey 1, Feb 25–Mar 19 (n = 4021)				Survey 2, Apr 15–May 1 (n = 2008)
	Anxiety^a	p	Depression^b	p	Anxiety^a	p	Depression^b	p
Gender^c
Male	1.00		1.00		–		–
Female	1.31 (1.08–1.59)	0.006	1.35 (1.13–1.62)	0.001	–		–
Age
15–24	1.00		1.00		1.00		1.00
25–34	1.29 (0.93–1.80)	0.131	1.59 (1.12–2.27)	0.010	0.99 (0.56–1.74)	0.970	0.87 (0.49–1.54)	0.631
35–44	1.17 (0.82–1.69)	0.387	1.55 (1.06–2.25)	0.023	1.03 (0.55–1.92)	0.922	1.21 (0.66–2.23)	0.535
45–64	0.79 (0.56–1.13)	0.194	1.40 (0.99–2.00)	0.059	0.74 (0.41–1.32)	0.306	0.90 (0.50–1.61)	0.715
65 or above	0.92 (0.60–1.39)	0.679	2.03 (1.38–3.00)	<0.001	0.60 (0.32–1.15)	0.124	0.84 (0.43–1.62)	0.601
Marital status
Married	1.00		1.00		1.00		1.00
Unmarried/divorced/widowed	1.12 (0.90–1.39)	0.335	1.14 (0.93–1.40)	0.194	1.33 (0.95–1.87)	0.101	1.29 (0.93–1.79)	0.121
Education level^c
Tertiary or above	1.00		1.00		–		1.00
Secondary	0.89 (0.71–1.11)	0.295	1.19 (0.95–1.48)	0.129	–		1.47 (1.01–2.15)	0.045
Primary or below	0.83 (0.56–1.23)	0.351	0.89 (0.63–1.27)	0.526	–		1.99 (1.10–3.61)	0.023
Employment^c
Employed	–		1.00		1.00		1.00
Dependent	–		1.07 (0.84–1.35)	0.582	0.85 (0.57–1.28)	0.449	0.85 (0.58–1.26)	0.428
Unemployed	–		1.52 (1.05–2.20)	0.026	2.15 (1.21–3.79)	0.009	1.97 (1.12–3.44)	0.018
Monthly household income (HK$)^c
$80,000 or above	–		1.00		1.00		1.00
$60,000–$79,999	–		0.88 (0.56–1.36)	0.555	1.09 (0.50–2.36)	0.836	1.11 (0.50–2.48)	0.792
$40,000–$59,999	–		1.00 (0.71–1.41)	0.991	1.52 (0.82–2.81)	0.180	1.64 (0.87–3.08)	0.126
$20,000–$39,999	–		0.93 (0.66–1.30)	0.659	1.04 (0.58–1.86)	0.907	1.47 (0.81–2.68)	0.207
$19,999 or below	–		0.89 (0.63–1.28)	0.537	1.09 (0.59–2.01)	0.793	1.29 (0.69–2.41)	0.422
Income change
Stable/Increase	1.00		1.00		1.00		1.00
Decrease	1.45 (1.19–1.77)	<0.001	1.48 (1.23–1.79)	<0.001	1.28 (0.95–1.73)	0.107	1.00 (0.75–1.34)	0.996
Savings (HK$)
$3,000,000 or above	1.00		1.00		1.00		1.00
$2,000,000–$2,999,999	0.76 (0.35–1.64)	0.486	1.06 (0.52–2.15)	0.882	0.50 (0.11–2.32)	0.379	0.46 (0.10–2.10)	0.316
$1,000,000–$1,999,999	0.64 (0.37–1.11)	0.114	0.68 (0.40–1.17)	0.164	0.57 (0.18–1.87)	0.357	0.69 (0.22–2.10)	0.510
$500,000–$999,999	0.62 (0.37–1.03)	0.063	0.85 (0.52–1.39)	0.519	1.78 (0.69–4.61)	0.235	1.56 (0.62–3.96)	0.347
$200,000–$499,999	0.71 (0.45–1.13)	0.146	1.00 (0.64–1.57)	0.985	1.37 (0.56–3.31)	0.488	1.60 (0.68–3.76)	0.280
Less than $200,000	0.92 (0.60–1.40)	0.689	1.42 (0.93–2.18)	0.103	1.92 (0.84–4.39)	0.121	1.95 (0.87–4.34)	0.103
None	0.89 (0.57–1.39)	0.609	1.20 (0.77–1.87)	0.429	2.61 (1.11–6.14)	0.028	2.65 (1.15–6.10)	0.022
Disruptions to healthy eating and sleep
Low	1.00		1.00		1.00		1.00
Medium	2.26 (1.64–3.10)	<0.001	2.45 (1.86–3.24)	<0.001	2.23 (1.16–4.30)	0.016	2.27 (1.26–4.06)	0.006
High	5.03 (3.62–6.99)	<0.001	7.51 (5.60–10.07)	<0.001	6.67 (3.33–13.38)	<0.001	6.29 (3.35–11.79)	<0.001
Disruptions to socializing and leisure activities
Low	1.00		1.00		1.00		1.00
Medium	1.73 (1.24–2.42)	0.001	1.82 (1.37–2.42)	<0.001	2.04 (1.01–4.10)	0.046	1.71 (0.95–3.08)	0.074
High	4.18 (2.97–5.89)	<0.001	3.09 (2.30–4.16)	<0.001	5.12 (2.49–10.54)	<0.001	3.12 (1.68–5.77)	<0.001
Disruptions to household chores
Low	NA		NA		1.00		1.00
Medium	NA		NA		0.65 (0.43–0.99)	0.043	1.03 (0.69–1.54)	0.878
High	NA		NA		1.12 (0.66–1.90)	0.670	1.37 (0.82–2.29)	0.234
Disruptions to exercising or keeping active
Low	NA		NA		1.00		1.00
Medium	NA		NA		0.77 (0.49–1.22)	0.268	0.70 (0.46–1.06)	0.089
High	NA		NA		1.36 (0.83–2.22)	0.222	1.41 (0.89–2.23)	0.138
Disruptions to work or study
Low	NA		NA		1.00		1.00
Medium	NA		NA		1.36 (0.86–2.14)	0.190	0.89 (0.59–1.35)	0.575
High	NA		NA		2.15 (1.28–3.59)	0.004	1.77 (1.10–2.84)	0.019
Adoption of all preventive measures
Yes	1.00		1.00		1.00		1.00
No	1.02 (0.68–1.53)	0.927	0.89 (0.62–1.27)	0.506	1.12 (0.67–1.87)	0.653	0.92 (0.56–1.50)	0.727
Wear a mask when I go out
Yes	1.00		1.00		1.00		1.00
No	1.50 (0.79–2.86)	0.212	1.65 (0.97–2.82)	0.067	2.09 (0.42–10.51)	0.370	0.99 (0.20–4.92)	0.992
Wash hands often
Yes	1.00		1.00		1.00		1.00
No	0.98 (0.65–1.49)	0.931	1.39 (0.99–1.96)	0.056	0.87 (0.41–1.84)	0.715	0.69 (0.33–1.43)	0.314
Avoid people with respiratory symptoms
Yes	1.00		1.00		1.00		1.00
No	0.71 (0.53–0.95)	0.020	1.09 (0.85–1.41)	0.483	0.84 (0.49–1.43)	0.518	0.94 (0.57–1.55)	0.812
Avoid going to crowded places
Yes	1.00		1.00		1.00		1.00
No	0.84 (0.64–1.12)	0.246	1.29 (1.01–1.65)	0.038	1.04 (0.64–1.69)	0.890	0.78 (0.48–1.26)	0.314
Avoid using public transport
Yes	1.00		1.00		1.00		1.00
No	1.02 (0.71–1.48)	0.895	1.06 (0.78–1.45)	0.720	0.82 (0.52–1.29)	0.388	0.83 (0.54–1.29)	0.414
Stay at home as much as possible
Yes	NA		NA		1.00		1.00
No	NA		NA		1.28 (0.74–2.23)	0.379	1.51 (0.90–2.53)	0.119
Use hand sanitizer
Yes	NA		NA		1.00		1.00
No	NA		NA		1.04 (0.60–1.77)	0.900	1.06 (0.64–1.75)	0.819
Disinfect house
Yes	NA		NA		1.00		1.00
No	NA		NA		0.58 (0.36–0.93)	0.023	0.87 (0.56–1.34)	0.523

Data was weighted by gender, age, and education level based on the Hong Kong population census 2019. All dates are in 2020.
NA not applicable (question was not asked in the survey).
^aThe 7-item Generalized Anxiety Disorder scale (GAD-7) scores at or exceeding 10 were used to define clinical levels of anxiety symptoms.
^bThe 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) scores at or exceeding 10 were used to define clinical levels of depressive symptoms.
^cDemographic variables that were not significant in bivariable analyses (Supplemental Material B) were not included in the multivariable logistic regression.

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Table 2 Multivariable logistic regression examining correlates of anxiety and depression.

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