Table 2 The relationship between Micronutrients, immune cells and aged-related bone

Vitamin

B

Serve as cofactors of enzymes to regulate energy metabolism, and other critical functions¹⁷¹

Benefit to BMD and contrast to OA progession^172,173

C

Acts as an antioxidant and functions as a cofactor for a number of enzymes, playing a role in enhancing the differentiation and proliferation of B- and T-cells.¹⁷⁴

Promote osteogenesis and bone mineralization^175,176

D

Counteracts inflammation by inhibiting Th1, Th17 cell proliferation, suppression of DC cell maturation with Treg enhancement.¹⁷⁷

An autocrine/ paracrine regulator of osteoblasts and bone formation¹⁷⁸

E

Assist in maintaining T cell membrane integrity, facilitating signal transduction and cell division, and regulating inflammatory mediators produced by other immune cells.¹⁷⁹

Exerts anti-osteoporotic actions through alleviate IL-1, IL-6, RANKL level.¹⁸⁰ However, higher vitamin E status may decrease BMD¹⁸¹

K

Diminish T cell-mediated immunity by restraining the proliferative response and triggering apoptosis in activated T cells¹⁸²

Enhance bone-vascular crosstalk and bone strengthen^183,184

Amino Acids

Control immune cell differentiation and function¹⁸⁵

Act as energy source and molecular pathway modulator in bone¹⁸⁶

Fatty Acids

Short-Chain fatty acids

Improve memory potential of activated CD8⁺ T cells;¹⁸⁷

Increases regulatory T-cell numbers and function, and decrease inflammatory cytokines expression¹⁸⁸

Downregulate osteoclast genes and prevent bone loss^189,190

Long-Chain fatty acids

Exert effects through immune cell membrane receptors such as FFA1 and FFA4 receptors¹⁹¹

Dual modulates the viability of bone-related cells¹⁹²