Table 3 Summary of advanced biomaterials for modulating macrophage anti-inflammatory polarization in acute bone infections
Types of biomaterials | Major components | In vitro model | In vivo model | Macrophage polarization | Functions | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Titanium-based biomaterials | Ti, antimicrobial peptide (HHC36), MSNs | RAW 264.7 macrophages, mouse BMSCs | Rabbit model of infection bone defect | M2 polarization | In vitro: (1) Excellent antibacterial performance; (2) The biomaterial induces M2 macrophage polarization to activate anti-inflammatory responses; (3) Promotes osteogenic activity and exhibits good biocompatibility. In vivo: (1) It inhibits bacterial infections; (2) Induces M2 macrophage polarization for anti-inflammatory effects and enhances bone integration. | |
Ti, ZIF-8, honeycomb-like TiO2 nanotube array (TNT) | RAW264.7 cells and BMSCs | Rat implant-associated infection model | M2 polarization | In vitro: (1) The glucose oxidase activity of ZIF-8 promotes antibacterial effects; (2) Zn²⁺ release hydrolyzes extracellular DNA, enhancing bacterial killing and preventing biofilm formation; (3) It promotes osteogenic differentiation; (4) Induces macrophage M2 polarization and inhibits the overexpression of pro-inflammatory factors. In vivo: (1) Bacterial eradication; (2) It induces M2 macrophage polarization and promotes bone integration. | ||
Ti, hydrogel coating composed of konjac gum and gelatin, tannic acid-d-tyrosine nanoparticles | RAW264.7 cells and MSCs | Rat implant-associated infection model | M2 polarization | In vitro: (1) Excellent photothermal effects synergize to kill bacteria and eliminate biofilms; (2) The biomaterial removes excessive intracellular ROS and induces macrophage M2 polarization, reducing pro-inflammatory responses; (3) Promotes MSC proliferation and osteogenic differentiation. In vivo: (1) Bacterial eradication; (2) It induces M2 macrophage polarization, alleviates inflammatory responses, and promotes bone integration. | ||
Ti, bioactive polydopamine/Ti3C2/poly(vinylidene fluoride trifluoroethylene) (PDA/Ti3C2/P(VDF-TrFE)) nanocomposite | RAW264.7 cells and MSCs | / | M2 polarization | In vitro: (1) The biomaterial directly promotes the spreading, growth, and differentiation of BMSCs; (2) Thermal stimulation enhances HSP47 synthesis and activates the MEK/ERK pathway to promote osteogenic differentiation; (3) Mild thermal stimulation induces macrophage M2 polarization, reducing inflammatory responses; (4) Excellent antibacterial properties. | ||
Ti6Al4V-6Cu alloy | RAW264.7 cells, HGFs, HUVECs, and osteoblasts | / | M2 polarization | In vitro: (1) The biomaterial promotes angiogenesis in HUVECs; (2) Induces macrophage M2 polarization, reducing inflammatory responses; (3) Excellent biocompatibility. | ||
Ti6Al4V-6Cu alloy | Osteoporotic macrophages | / | M2 polarization | In vitro: The biomaterial induces M2 polarization of osteoporotic macrophages in an infected microenvironment, promoting the release of anti-inflammatory factors. | ||
PEEK-based biomaterials | PEEK, polydopamine-bioactive glass nanoparticles | RAW264.7 cells, BMSC, MC3T3-E1 cells, and ADSCs | Rat model of bone defect | M2 polarization | In vitro: (1) Excellent photothermal antibacterial activity; (2) The biomaterial promotes osteogenic differentiation of BSMCs; (3) Induces macrophage M2 polarization and reduces the expression of inflammatory factors. In vivo: It induces macrophage M2 polarization and promotes bone integration. | |
PEEK, PDA, GS layer | MC3T3-E1 and RAW264.7 cells | Rat implant-associated infection model | M2 polarization | In vitro: (1) Excellent activity in promoting osteogenic differentiation; (2) The biomaterial induces macrophage M2 polarization; (3) Exhibits excellent antibacterial properties. In vivo: It induces macrophage M2 polarization and promotes bone integration. | ||
3D porous sulfonated PEEK, sodium butyrate | RAW264.7 cells and rat BMSCs | Rat osteomyelitis model | M2 polarization | In vitro: (1) Enhanced macrophage phagocytic activity and elevated ROS levels promote bacterial eradication; (2) The biomaterial induces macrophage M2 polarization and stimulates the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines; (3) Exhibits excellent osteogenic activity. In vivo: (1) Excellent anti-infection capability; (2) Good bone repair capability. | ||
Metal/metal oxide NPs | Ti, Ag NPs, Sr | MC3T3-E1 cells and RAW264.7 cells | Rat model of infected femoral metaphysis | M2 polarization | In vitro: (1) The biomaterial eliminates pathogens through the release of Ag⁺ and Sr²⁺ and promotes osteoblast. differentiation; (2) It induces macrophage M2 polarization. In vivo: Enhanced bone integration performance. | |
50 nm Au NPs | RAW264.7 cells and BMSCs | Rat osteomyelitis model | M2 polarization | In vitro: (1) The biomaterial induces macrophage M2 polarization by inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway; (2) It promotes osteogenic differentiation of BSMCs; (3) Overexpression of TREM2 enhances macrophage phagocytosis of Staphylococcus aureus. In vivo: It suppresses inflammatory responses, and promotes tissue repair. | ||
Lipopolysaccharide-treated macrophage cell membranes, AuNC | RAW264.7 cells | Mice model of bone defect | M2 polarization | In vitro: (1) Nanoparticles synergize with photodynamic therapy for antibacterial effects and remove residual ROS; (2) It induces macrophage M2 polarization In vivo: It induces macrophage M2 polarization, suppresses inflammatory responses, and promotes bone repair. | ||
CeO2 nanoceria, Ce6 | RAW264.7 cells and MC3T3-E1cells | Rat models of periodontal inflammation | M2 polarization | In vitro: The biomaterial promotes macrophage M2 polarization and enhances anti-inflammatory responses. In vivo: It induces macrophage M2 polarization, suppresses inflammatory responses, and promotes tissue repair. | ||
ZnO nanowires, collagen fibrils | RAW264.7 cells and BMSCs | Rat model of infectious mandibular defect | M2 polarization | In vitro: (1) The biomaterial promotes BMSC adhesion, proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation; (2) It releases Zn²⁺ to inhibit bacterial activity. In vivo: It induces macrophage M2 polarization, suppresses inflammatory responses, and promotes the healing of infected bone defects. | ||
Borosilicate bioactive glass (BSG) combined with ferroferric oxide (Fe3O4) | RAW264.7 cells and MSCs | Rabbit model of implant-related S. aureus bone infection | M2 polarization | In vitro: (1) The biomaterial promotes MSC osteogenic differentiation and mineralization; (2) Induces macrophage M2 polarization and upregulates the expression of anti-inflammatory factors. In vivo: It completely eradicates bacteria while facilitating new bone formation. | ||
Nanocomposites | Chitosan, puerarin | rBMSCs | Air pouch model, and rat model of femoral osteomyelitis | M2 polarization | In vitro: (1) Excellent antibacterial properties; (2) It rBMSC proliferation and osteogenic differentiation. In vivo: (1) The biomaterial removes LPS and regulates macrophage M2 polarization; (2) It improves bacterial infection-induced bone destruction. | |
Biomimetic nanocomposites enabled loading of antibiotics (gentamicin and doxycycline) | hMSCs and THP-1 | / | M2 polarization | In vitro: (1) Excellent antibacterial properties; (2) The biomaterial facilitates hMSC adhesion and osteoinduction; (3) Promotes macrophage M2 polarization | ||
ZIF-8, BPNs, GelMA, HAMA | MC3T3-E1 cells and RAW 264.7 cells | Rat model of severe cranial defect | M2 polarization | In vitro: (1) The biomaterial promotes macrophage M2 polarization and inhibits inflammatory responses; (2) Enhances osteogenic differentiation; (3) Photothermal antibacterial activity. In vivo: It achieves multiple functions, including antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and bone regeneration promotion. |
