Table 1 Electrical characteristics of conductive hydrogels in promoting bone healing

MA

PEDOT:PSS, MgtiO3

-

C@MA:0.44 ± 0.03 mS/cm

CP@MA:1.29 ± 0.08 mS/cm

CPM@MA:1.52 ± 0.09 mS/cm

GelMA

PPy, Fe³⁺

(11.23 ± 1.05) μm (GelMA-PPy-Fe)

GelMA-PPy-Fe:9.6 ± 1.3 mS/cm

GelMA

Mg²⁺, BP nanosheets

250–300 μm

0.10 S/m

GelMA

BP nanosheets

d = 200 μm

0.22 S/m

GelMA

PPyNWs

8 ± 4.1 μm

0.263 ±0.020 S/m (GelMA@4PPy)

Carboxymethyl chitosan

CNT

50–80 μm

-

PVA, CH, SA

MWCNT-COOH, GNP

12.1 ± 26.6 μm(PVA/CH/SA)

13.9 ± 30.0 μm(+CNT)

17.0 ± 35.3 μm (+CNT + GNP)

(1.8 ± 0.02) × 10⁻⁵ S/m(PVA/CH/SA)

(5.7 ± 0.24) × 10⁻² S/m(PVA/CH/SA-CNT)

(6.3 ± 0.05) × 10⁻³ S/m(PVA/CH/SA-GNP)

PVA

N³⁺ ion

-

1.59 μS/cm (1e15)

1.91 μS/cm (5e15)

2 μS/cm (1e16)

Acrylamide, gelatin, deacetylated chitosan

Mo2Ti2C3, MXene

-

50 mS/cm (20 μg/mL MXene)

55 mS/cm (40 μg/mL MXene)

60 mS/cm (80 μg/mL MXene)

PAA

GO

2–10

17 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm (0.2% GO-PAA)

25 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm (0.4% GO-PAA)

33 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm (0.6% GO-PAA)

Gel

PEDOT: PSS

50–250 μm (0.3% PEDOT:PSS)

70–150 μm (0.1% PEDOT:PSS)

170 μS/m (0.3% PEDOT:PSS)

100 μS/m (0.1% PEDOT:PSS)

GelMA

MWCNT

-

9.21 S/cm (70-30-5)

OPF gel

CNT-PEG-acrylate (CNT-pega), BP

-

0.008 S/m (CNTpega 16 mg/mL, BP 0.8 mg/mL)

GP, OP

PPy

173.13 μm (G-OP)

295.96 μm (GP15-OP)

0.06 mS/m (G-OP)

2.14 ± mS/m (GP15-OP)

RSF

MXene

-

4 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm (8 mg/mL MXene)

ECM, AlgMA

BP@PDA

-

0.059 S/m