Table 2 Electrical characteristics of piezoelectric hydrogels in promoting bone regeneration

From: Electric field stimulation-responsive hydrogels for bone regeneration: from mechanisms to applications

Matrix

Piezoelectrical materials

Crosslink

Output voltage

Degradation

Elastic modulus

Ref.

dECM, Gel-PC

FF

noncovalent bond

20 mV (dECM-P)

1 000 cycle, 21 d

-

202

Cs/Gel

PHA, PBT

covalent bond, noncovalent bond

0.8 V (G/PHA/10%PBT)

-

342.8 Pa (CG)

408.4 Pa (CG/PHA)

493.1 Pa (CG/PHA/5%PBT)

532.2 Pa(CG/PHA/10%PBT)

194

collagen

PLLA, NF-sPLLA

noncovalent bond

33.7 mV (NF-sPLLA)

-

-

208

OCS, Gel

BTO, KBTO

covalent bond, noncovalent bond

41.16–61.82 mV (1.5 W/cm2)

45.19–65.68 mV

(2 W/cm2)

-

2 160.00 ± 73.94 Pa (GO)

2 407.50 ± 115.00 Pa (0.1KBGO)

2 560.00 ± 129.87 Pa (0.5KBGO)

195

GelMA

BTO

covalent bond

10 mV/mm2 (3 N, 2 Hz)

40%(14 d)

-

241

GGMA

CoFe2O4/PVDF

noncovalent bond

d33 = 22 pC/N

-

20.33 kPa (0.5 wt%)

26.70 kPa (1 wt%)

28.69 kPa (2 wt%)

242

CS/HAp, GM/Alg

PWH nanoparticles

covalent bond, noncovalent bond

d33 = 9.41 pC/N

46%(35 d)

1.02 MPa (Bio-S)

243

  1. dECM decellularized extracellular matrix, Gel-PC piezoelectric-conductive modified gelatin, FF diphenylalanine, PLLA poly-L-lactic acid, NF-sPLLA nanofibers of PLLA, Cs/Gel chitosan/gelatin, PDA polydopamine, PHA PDA-modified ceramic hydroxyapatite, PBT PDA-modified barium titanate, OCS oxidized chondroitin sulfate, BTO barium titanate, KBTO amino-functionalized BTO, GGMA methacrylate gellan gum, PDVF poly(vinylidene fluoride), CS/HAp chitosan-hydroxyapatite, GM/Alg calcium-chelated biocompatible alginate and covalently crosslinked gelatin methacryloyl, PWH piezoelectric whitlockite
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