Fig. 2: Time-varying hazard ratios for risk of cancers per 1 standard deviation increase in biological age measures in UK Biobank (n = 308,156).

a PhenoAge residual and risk of any cancer; b PhenoAge residual and risk of breast cancer in women; c KDM residual and risk of colorectal cancer; d PhenoAge residual and risk of colorectal cancer. Only the models with evidence of non-proportional hazards (P < 0.05) are shown. Estimates were obtained by including interaction terms between the exposure and the time variable (i.e., attained age, split into 5-year intervals) in the Cox models. The shaded areas indicate 95% confidence intervals (HRs outside the boundaries between 0.6 and 1.6 are not shown). The proportional hazards assumption of the biological age measures fitted in the Cox models was tested using Schoenfeld residuals. All models were adjusted for age (time scale), birth year, sex, baseline assessment center, ethnic background, body mass index, smoking status, physical activity level, alcohol consumption, education level, deprivation index quintiles, and the cancer-specific covariates as detailed in the footnote of Table 3 and in Supplementary Table 3. HR hazard ratio, KDM Klemera-Doubal method, SD standard deviation.