Table 1 Modulation of IC molecules in the TME by radiotherapy.

IC molecules	Cell types	Changes	Cancer species	RT	Reference
PD-1	CD8⁺ T cells	↓	Pancreatic cancer	5 Gy × 5	[117]
	TAMs	↓	Rectal cancer	2 Gy	[109]
	CD4⁺ T cells CD8⁺ T cells	↑	Lung cancer	10 Gy × 4	[30]
	CD4⁺ T cells CD8⁺ T cells	↑	Gastric cancer	5 Gy × 3	[79]
	T cells	↑	Prostate cancer	6 Gy	[75]
PD-L1	Tumor cells	↑	Pancreatic cancer	5 Gy × 5	[117]
	Tumor cells	↑	Prostate cancer	6 Gy	[75]
	Tumor cells	↑	Colon cancer	8 Gy × 3	[120]
	Tumor cells	↑	Melanoma	2 Gy × 4	[118]
	Tumor cells	↑	Lung cancer	10 Gy × 4	[30]
				20 Gy	[15]
	Tumor cells	↑	Gastric cancer	5 Gy × 3	[79]
	Tumor cells	↑	Cervical squamous carcinoma	10 Gy	[121]
	Tumor cells	↑	Breast cancer	8 Gy × 3	[15]
				12 Gy	[86]
	TILs	↑	Melanoma	2 Gy × 4	[118]
	CD4⁺ T cells CD8⁺ T cells	↑	Lung cancer	10 Gy × 4	[30]
	CD8⁺ T cells	↑	HNSCC	10 Gy	[122]
	DCs	↑	Lung cancer	10 Gy × 4	[30]
	DCs	↑	Breast cancer	12 Gy	[86]
	MDSCs	↑	Lung cancer	10 Gy × 4	[30]
	Macrophages	↑	Breast cancer	12 Gy	[86]
CTLA-4	iTregs	↓	N/A	10 Gy	[40]
TIGIT	CD8⁺ T cells	↓	Colon cancer	2 Gy × 18	[120]
	CD3⁺CD4⁺ T cells CD3⁺CD8⁺ T cells	↓	OAC	2 Gy, 4 Gy	[127]
	CD8⁺ T cells	↑	Colon cancer	8 Gy × 3	[120]
TIM-3	CD3⁺CD4⁺ T cells CD3⁺CD8⁺ T cells	↓	OAC	2 Gy, 4 Gy	[127]
	NK cells	↑	Lung and liver cancer	Median: 10 Gy × 5	[31]
	CD8⁺ T cells	↑	HNSCC	10 Gy	[122]
	Tregs	↑	HNSCC	10 Gy	[122]
LAG-3	iTregs	↑	N/A	10 Gy	[40]

IC immune checkpoint, RT radiotherapy, PD-1 programmed cell death 1, PD-L1 programmed cell death ligand 1, CTLA-4 cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated protein 4, TIGIT T cell immunoreceptor with Ig and ITIM domains, TIM-3 T cell immunoglobulin and mucin-containing molecule 3, LAG-3 lymphocyte activation gene 3, TAM tumor-associated macrophage, TIL tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte, DC dendritic cell, MDSC myeloid-derived suppressor cell, Treg regulatory T cell, iTreg induced regulatory T cell, NK natural killer, HNSCC head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, OAC oesophageal adenocarcinoma, N/A not applicable.

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