Table 3 Summary of advanced organoid models and their applications.

Organoid-immune cell co-culture models

Organoid models co-cultured with immune cells to simulate tumour-immune interactions.

Immunotherapy testing, cancer immunology, immune checkpoint studies.

Replicates complex TME with immune responses, predictive of therapy outcomes.

Complexity of immune cell integration and stability.

[80, 81]

3D bioprinted organoids

3D bioprinting technology used to construct organoids with precise cell deposition.

Drug screening, disease modelling, personalized medicine.

High reproducibility, creates complex structures, automation potential.

Viability of printed cells, limited by material options and cost.

[82, 83]

Microfluidic organoid models

Microfluidic systems simulate fluid dynamics and organ-specific conditions in organoids.

High-throughput drug testing, personalized medicine, toxicology screening.

Precise control of microenvironments, enables high-throughput and dynamic studies.

Complexity of chip fabrication, long-term culture stability issues.

[84, 85]

Genetically engineered organoids

Organoids modified using gene-editing technologies to model specific genetic mutations.

Cancer research, drug resistance studies, disease modelling.

Precision in modelling genetic mutations, enables personalized therapy testing.

Gene editing efficiency and stability, off-target effects.

[86, 87]

Multi-organ interaction models

Integration of multiple organoid types to simulate inter-organ interactions and systemic diseases.

Systemic disease modelling, drug metabolism, immune response studies.

Simulates organ-organ interactions, useful for studying multi-organ diseases.

High complexity, integration of different organoid types is challenging.

[84, 88]