Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Article
  • Published:

Changes in eye axis length and corneal curvature in central China from the perspective of birth year

Eye volume 39, pages 1373–1379 (2025)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

Objectives

To explore the changes in eye structures over time in the Chinese population from the perspective of birth year.

Methods

We collected measurement data of intraocular lens Master from patients who underwent intraocular lens Master biometry for a routine cataract or refractive examination (ametropia and presbyopia) between April 2012 and October 2023, then screened them. Selected patients were divided into ten groups of 10 years each according to their year of birth (called birth decades). Birth-year–dependent changes in axial length and corneal curvature were compared between the groups.

Results

The average axial length increased from 23.52 mm to 25.95 mm, and the corneal curvature dropped from 44.20 D to 43.33 D in patients born in before-1930 and 1990s. The proportion of short average axial length and steep corneal curvature decreased, whereas the proportion of long average axial length increased with the birth decade. The proportion of patients with corneal curvature < 40 D was 4.18% in 1970s, 5.73% in 1980s, and 3.38% in 1990s, which were significantly higher than those of other age groups. The average axial length of the eyes among primary school students was 23.96 mm, and among college students, it was 25.86 mm.

Conclusions

Overall, with the birth decade, average axial length increased and corneal curvature decreased. There were generational differences in ocular biological parameters, changes in the eye might affect the incidence of eye diseases such as glaucoma and fundus diseases, which in turn might lead to changes in the spectrum of eye diseases.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on SpringerLink
  • Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: Distribution of CC and AL in different birth decades.
Fig. 2: The proportion of particular AL and CC in different birth decades.
Fig. 3: Distribution of AL and CC in different learning stages.

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

The data supporting the findings of this study are not publicly accessible due to privacy concerns and can be available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

References

  1. Nakao SY, Miyake M, Hosoda Y, Nakano E, Mori Y, Takahashi A, et al. Myopia prevalence and ocular biometry features in a general Japanese population: The Nagahama study. Ophthalmology. 2021;128:522–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Koch DD, Liu JF, Hyde LL, Rock RL, Emery JM. Refractive complications of cataract surgery after radial keratotomy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1989;108:676–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Ren Y, Castro CB, Peng Y, Glauben T. Nutrition transition with accelerating urbanization? Empirical evidence from rural China. Nutrients. 2021;13:921.

  4. Ye X, Zhu D, Ding R, He P. The effect of China’s compulsory education reforms on physiological health in adulthood: a natural experiment. Health Policy Plan. 2022;37:376–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Li W, Cui Y, Gong Q, Zhu Z. Association of smartphone use duration with physical fitness among University students: focus on strength and flexibility. Int J Env Res Pub He. 2022;19:7386.

  6. Osailan A. The relationship between smartphone usage duration (using smartphone’s ability to monitor screen time) with hand-grip and pinch-grip strength among young people: an observational study. Bmc Musculoskel Dis. 2021;22:186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. He M, Xiang F, Zeng Y, Mai J, Chen Q, Zhang J, et al. Effect of Time spent outdoors at school on the development of myopia among children in China: A randomized clinical trial. Jama-J Am Med Assoc. 2015;314:1142–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Bourke CM, Loughman J, Flitcroft DI, Loskutova E, O Brien C. We can’t afford to turn a blind eye to myopia. Int J Med. 2023;116:635–9.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Chen Z, Gu D, Wang B, Kang P, Watt K, Yang Z, et al. Significant myopic shift over time: Sixteen-year trends in overall refraction and age of myopia onset among Chinese children, with a focus on ages 4-6 years. J Glob Health. 2023;13:4144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Dolgin E. The myopia boom. Nature. 2015;519:276–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Morgan IG, French AN, Ashby RS, Guo X, Ding X, He M, et al. The epidemics of myopia: Aetiology and prevention. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2018;62:134–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Kumagai K, Ogino N, Horie E, Fukami M, Furukawa M, Matsumura M, et al. Birth year-dependent increase in axial length of Japanese adult. Am J Ophthalmol. 2021;232:98–108.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Bullimore MA, Lee SS, Schmid KL, Rozema JJ, Leveziel N, Mallen E, et al. IMI-onset and progression of myopia in young adults. Invest Ophth Vis Sci. 2023;64:2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Wolffsohn JS, Jong M, Smith ER, Resnikoff SR, Jonas JB, Logan NS, et al. IMI 2021 Reports and digest - reflections on the implications for clinical practice. Invest Ophth Vis Sci. 2021;62:1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Myopia stabilization and associated factors among participants in the Correction of Myopia Evaluation Trial (COMET). Invest Ophth Vis Sci 2013;54:7871–84.

  16. Brennan NA, Toubouti YM, Cheng X, Bullimore MA. Efficacy in myopia control. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2021;83:100923.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Jan C, Xu R, Luo D, Xiong X, Song Y, Ma J, et al. Association of visual impairment with economic development among Chinese schoolchildren. Jama Pediatr. 2019;173:e190914.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Benzir M, Afroze A, Zahan A, Naznin RA, Khanam A, Sumi SA, et al. A study linking axial length, corneal curvature, and eye axis with demographic characteristics in the emmetropic eyes of Bangladeshi people. Cureus J Med Sci. 2022;14:e29925.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Tideman J, Polling JR, Vingerling JR, Jaddoe V, Williams C, Guggenheim JA, et al. Axial length growth and the risk of developing myopia in European children. Acta Ophthalmol. 2018;96:301–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Vongphanit J, Mitchell P, Wang JJ. Prevalence and progression of myopic retinopathy in an older population. Ophthalmology. 2002;109:704–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Congdon N, Wang F, Tielsch JM. Issues in the epidemiology and population-based screening of primary angle-closure glaucoma. Surv Ophthalmol. 1992;36:411–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Wong TY, Loon SC, Saw SM. The epidemiology of age related eye diseases in Asia. Brit J Ophthalmol. 2006;90:506–11.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Neoh FP, Y A, Siti AA, Liza-Sharmini AT. Anterior segment biometry in primary angle closure glaucoma patients with visual field progression: comparison between Malays and Chinese. J Curr Glaucoma Pract. 2023;17:3–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Wang Z, Wiggs JL, Aung T, Khawaja AP, Khor CC. The genetic basis for adult onset glaucoma: Recent advances and future directions. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2022;90:101066.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Sun X, Dai Y, Chen Y, Yu DY, Cringle SJ, Chen J, et al. Primary angle closure glaucoma: What we know and what we don’t know. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2017;57:26–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Fan NW, Hwang DK, Ko YC, Tseng FC, Hung KH, Liu CJ. Risk factors for progressive visual field loss in primary angle-closure glaucoma: a retrospective cohort study. Plos One. 2013;8:e69772.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Li S, Shao M, Wan Y, Tang B, Sun X, Cao W. Relationship between ocular biometry and severity of primary angle-closure glaucoma: relevance for predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine. Epma J. 2019;10:261–71.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Yong KL, Gong T, Nongpiur ME, How AC, Lee HK, Cheng L, et al. Myopia in Asian subjects with primary angle closure: implications for glaucoma trends in East Asia. Ophthalmology. 2014;121:1566–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Lowe RF. Aetiology of the anatomical basis for primary angle-closure glaucoma. Biometrical comparisons between normal eyes and eyes with primary angle-closure glaucoma. Brit J Ophthalmol. 1970;54:161–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Xu L, Wang Y, Wang S, Wang Y, Jonas JB. High myopia and glaucoma susceptibility the Beijing Eye Study. Ophthalmology. 2007;114:216–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Marcus MW, de Vries MM, Junoy MF, Jansonius NM. Myopia as a risk factor for open-angle glaucoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ophthalmology. 2011;118:1989–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Oku Y, Oku H, Park M, Hayashi K, Takahashi H, Shouji T, et al. Long axial length as risk factor for normal tension glaucoma. Graef Arch Clin Exp. 2009;247:781–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Haarman A, Enthoven CA, Tideman J, Tedja MS, Verhoeven V, Klaver C. The complications of myopia: a review and meta-analysis. Invest Ophth Vis Sci. 2020;61:49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Ha A, Kim CY, Shim SR, Chang IB, Kim YK. Degree of myopia and glaucoma risk: a dose-response meta-analysis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2022;236:107–19.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Song P, Wang J, Bucan K, Theodoratou E, Rudan I, Chan KY. National and subnational prevalence and burden of glaucoma in China: A systematic analysis. J Glob Health. 2017;7:20705.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Flitcroft DI. The complex interactions of retinal, optical and environmental factors in myopia aetiology. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2012;31:622–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Stulting RD, Carr JD, Thompson KP, Waring GR, Wiley WM, Walker JG. Complications of laser in situ keratomileusis for the correction of myopia. Ophthalmology. 1999;106:13–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Shojaei A, Mohammad-Rabei H, Eslani M, Elahi B, Noorizadeh F. Long-term evaluation of complications and results of photorefractive keratectomy in myopia: an 8-year follow-up. Cornea. 2009;28:304–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

a. Funding/Support: This study was supported by Natural Science Foundation of Hubei Province of China (2023AFB053), Cultivation Fund for Science and Technology Innovation of Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University (ZNYYIIT20200507) of China and the 72nd batch of grant from China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2022M722463). The funders played no role in the study design, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or manuscript preparation. b. Financial Disclosures: None of the authors has proprietary interests in any product described in this article or any conflicts of interest.

Funding

Supported by Natural Science Foundation of Hubei Province of China (2023AFB053), Cultivation Fund for Science and Technology Innovation of Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University (ZNYYIIT20200507) of China and the 72nd batch of grant from China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2022M722463).

Author information

Author notes

  1. These authors contributed equally: Lufan Li, Nan Zhang.

  2. These authors jointly supervised this work: Liang Liang, Min Ke.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Ophthalmology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, China

    Lufan Li, Nan Zhang, Yang Liu, Xiaomin Chen, Weijuan Zeng, Yixin Hu, Fang Li, Wenjing Li, Yue Fu, Bin Jiang & Min Ke

  2. Department of Ophthalmology, Jingzhou Central Hospital, Jingzhou Hospital Affiliated to Yangtze University, Jingzhou, Hubei, China

    Xiaoqin Wang

  3. Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Enshi Autonomous Prefecture, Enshi Clinical College of Wuhan University, Enshi, Hubei, China

    Qingsong Wu & Lan Yu

  4. Department of Ophthalmology, Xiaogan Central Hospital, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Xiaogan, Hubei, China

    Rui Li

  5. Department of Ophthalmology, Yichang Central People’s Hospital, The first College of Clinical Medical Science, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, Hubei, China

    Rong Huang & Liang Liang

Authors
  1. Lufan Li
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Nan Zhang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Xiaoqin Wang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Qingsong Wu
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Rui Li
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Rong Huang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Lan Yu
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Yang Liu
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Xiaomin Chen
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Weijuan Zeng
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  11. Yixin Hu
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  12. Fang Li
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  13. Wenjing Li
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  14. Yue Fu
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  15. Bin Jiang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  16. Liang Liang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  17. Min Ke
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

MK and Liang Liang developed the concept of the study, contributed to writing the article and supervision of the project. Lufan Li and NZ contributed the writing of the article, data collection, interpretation and analysis. XW, QW, RL collaborated in initial data collection and contribution to the first draft. RH, LY, YH, WL, YF and BJ collected the patient data and assisted in drafting the manuscript. XC, WZ, YL and FL read and revised the manuscript. All authors approved the manuscript and this submission.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Liang Liang or Min Ke.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Li, L., Zhang, N., Wang, X. et al. Changes in eye axis length and corneal curvature in central China from the perspective of birth year. Eye 39, 1373–1379 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41433-025-03652-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Version of record:

  • Issue date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41433-025-03652-1

Search

Advanced search

Quick links