Table 1 Effects of the purported mediators acting on the gut microbiota–inflammatory system interaction on the host inflammatory status

From: Gut microbiota and inflammation in chronic kidney disease and their roles in the development of cardiovascular disease

Pro-inflammatory

Anti-inflammatory

Variable effecta

p-cresyl sulfate [41, 42]

SCFAs [46]

miRNAs [56]

Indoxyl sulfate [43, 44]

NO [47]b

Bile acids [50]

TMAO [45]

Vitamin K [51]

NE [63]

Oxalate [48, 49]

Vitamin B complex [17, 52,53,54]

ANS [66, 99]

Serotonin [62]

Threonine [55]

ENS [67]

 

GLP-1 [57]

 
 

GLP-2 [58]

 
 

PYY [59]

 
 

GABA [60, 61]

 
 

ACh [65]

 
 

Dopamine [64]

 
 

H2S [87, 88]

 
  1. aSome of these mediators have both pro- and anti-inflammatory effects
  2. •miRNAs: miR455 is pro-inflammatory while miR10a and miR107 are anti-inflammatory [56]
  3. •Bile acids: Most bile acids, especially lithocholic acid (LCA), are reported to have pro-inflammatory effects by themselves, while only ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) has been shown to suppress inflammation [50]. On the other hand, the activation of the bile acid receptors Farnesoid X Receptor (FXR) and TGR5 have an anti-inflammatory effect [50], chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA) being the most potent activator of FXR [83]
  4. •NE: Activation of the α-adrenergic receptors elicits pro-inflammatory effects while β-adrenergic receptor activity is anti-inflammatory [63]
  5. •ANS: The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) suppresses inflammation via activation of the ACh receptor α7nAChR [66]. On the other hand, the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) can exert both pro-inflammatory (via α2-adrenergic receptors) and anti-inflammatory (via β2-adrenergic receptors) effects [66], pro-inflammatory properties being more dominant [99]
  6. •ENS: The inflammatory effects of ENS depends on the location of the intestinal macrophages they induce; the lamina propria macrophages (LpMs) are inclined to be pro-inflammatory while the muscularis macrophages tend to have an anti-inflammatory phenotype, having the anti-inflammatory β2-adrenoceptors [67]
  7. bEven though NO can have pro-inflammatory activity via NF-κB activation, the number of mechanisms leading to its anti-inflammatory effects are more [47]
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