Table 2 Seed factors associated with adoption of climate-resilient crops and crop varieties

Access

Access to seed or the ability to afford seed was a principal barrier for small-scale farmers’ adoption of climate-resilient varieties. Several papers mentioned that cost was even more challenging for women and farmers with fewer assets, smaller parcels of land or lower economic status. At least four papers suggested seed subsidies as a strategy to improve access to seed^35,36,37,38.

Availability

Availability, or the ability to acquire seed on time, in the quantity needed and within reasonable proximity, was a determinant of adoption related to seed. Community seed banks also enhanced availability of seed.

Social networks

Participation in social networks that enable the exchange of seed was a climate-resilient strategy for farmers. Participation in social networks, which included community-based seed banks, seed organizations, farmer groups and intra-village or neighbour networks improved the adoption of seed (or new varieties for climate resilience), and these social networks also increased the spread of seed that was distributed as part of development projects. Conversely, one paper reported that seed did not spread beyond the immediate beneficiaries of the project³⁹. Another report stressed the importance of reciprocity within strong social networks as important for maintaining access to seed⁴⁰, and several others recommended supporting social networks to strengthen seed systems^{40,41,42,43,44}. According to three papers, community seed banks strengthened social networks for exchange, provided landraces for participatory crop improvement, and increased the availability of seed^44,45,46. Integration of informal and formal seed system elements is important because most of the seeds planted by small farmers are uncertified and sourced through informal seed system channels or social networks⁴⁷. Social networks also have an important role in enhancing farmers’ access to information.

Information

Farmers lacked information about varieties, adaptation and attributes, or did not know where to acquire seed. Extension services, seed companies, seed suppliers and seed traders were a source of information about seed, and in some cases increased use of seed and other management practices. In a few cases, there was evidence that access to extension services positively influenced the use of certified seed, and in another, the authors suggested that extension services could help farmers become aware of different adaptive strategies and help in the distribution of seed of improved varieties.

Gender

Few papers explicitly linked gender and seed. Improved seed was more difficult to acquire for female-headed households and women were less likely to use improved seed or have access to extension services; small, affordable seed packs were suggested as a potential solution.

Strategy

Improved or hybrid seed and exchanging seed with other villages were considered to be climate-resilience strategies for farmers.

Policy

A few papers discussed agricultural policies related to seed, arguing that policies should enable the seed sector to provide suitable varieties and aim to increase the availability of funds for seed distribution research and access to improved seed, and one paper indicated that government policies restrict farmers options for obtaining their preferred seed^48,49,50.

Experience

One paper indicated that farmers’ experience had a positive effect on adoption of new seed, whereas another indicated the opposite^9,51.

Seed or variety attributes

Four papers reported on concerns related to the attributes of the hybrid seed varieties and their adaptation to the environment, suitability for storage, flour to grain ratio, and other processing issues^52,53,54. One study found that farmers favour composite varieties and local landraces under conditions of abiotic stress⁵⁵.

Seed sovereignty

One paper discussed issues related to seed sovereignty, reporting that farmers wanted a say in where seed comes from and were resistant to the use of transgenic crops. They expressed a belief that seed industries are appropriating a resource that belongs to humanity. Autonomy is highly valued by these communities, and local varieties are valued in part for their contribution to maintaining independence from commercial hybrid seed sources⁴⁰.