Fig. 2: The impact of oxidative stress on senescence.

Oxidative stress influences cellular aging through various mechanisms and signaling pathways, resulting in a decline in cellular function and physiological impairment. This phenomenon is primarily characterized by elevated levels of ROS and RNS, which surpass the capacity of the antioxidant defense system⁵⁰. The ROS generated during oxidative stress can directly damage cellular DNA and lead to mitochondrial dysfunction, exhibiting features of mitochondrial apoptotic stress, which ultimately results in decreased cellular functionality⁵¹. Oxidative stress also activates key signaling pathways, such as p53 and ATM/ATR, promoting cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. The modulation of AMPK and mTOR signaling pathways further impacts cellular metabolism and survival. Then, oxidative stress can trigger chronic inflammation by activating inflammatory factors such as IL-1β, thereby accelerating the aging process. These signaling pathways represent critical mechanisms through which oxidative stress affects aging.