Table 1 Input parameters of the DEM cone penetration tests

Damping ratio, ζ

0.7

Particle density, ρ (kg/m³)

3.44 ×10³

Void ratio, e

0.06

Particle normal stiffness, k_n (N/m)

7.5 ×10⁷

Wall frictional coefficient, \(\mu\)_w

0

Particle shear stiffness, k_s (N/m)

5.0 ×10⁷

Particle frictional coefficient, \(\mu\)_p

0.76

Particle-wall normal stiffness, k_n (N/m)

1.5 ×10¹⁰

Particle size, d (mm)

0.17

Particle-wall shear stiffness, k_s (N/m)

1.0 ×10¹⁰