Fig. 4: Printed capacitance-based strain gauge dynamic, static and cyclic tensile testing results.

Relative change in capacitance (%) for printed CSGs where a total of seven different devices (Table 1) were utilized for either dynamic (devices a–e), static (devices a–e), or cyclic (devices f, g) testing. Results for dynamic testing with a target load of 18.7 kN for devices having electrodes a perpendicular (devices a–c) and b parallel (devices d–e) to the direction of strain. Results for static testing performed at 18.7 kN for those same devices having electrodes c perpendicular (devices a–c) and d parallel (devices d-e) to the direction of strain, and e cyclic testing of two different devices (f, g) having electrodes perpendicular to the direction of strain. Error bars are the estimated experimental uncertainty (Supplementary Discussion). In all images, scale bars represent 1.0 cm.