Table 1 Representative list of brain areas in which signals that can be described as prediction errors have been found from either primate electrophysiology or human neuroimaging studies

Self action

SC³¹

OFC³¹

(action executed)—(action

Cerebellum³¹

ACC³¹

intended)

FEF³¹

MCC^{85, 86}

LIP³¹

dlPFC³¹

Self reward outcome

VTA^{33, 34, 36, 57}

LHb⁴¹

(actual reward outcome)—(expected reward outcome)

VS/other striatum^{31, 56, 84}

ACC⁸⁶

SN^{35, 56}

dlPFC³¹

Self reward value

vmPFC⁴⁰

(actual value of reward)—(expected

VTA⁴⁰

value of reward)

SN⁴⁰

Self reward timing

VTA^{35, 57}

(actual timing of reward)—(expected timing of reward)

SN^{35, 57}

Allocentric

Other action

dlPFC⁸⁴

VS/other striatum^{63,64,65,66,67,68}

(other’s actual action)—(other’s expected action)

dmPFC⁹¹

Other reward outcome

ACCg⁴⁸

MTG⁴²

(other’s actual reward)—(other’s

vmPFC⁸⁴

STS⁴²

expected reward)

dmPFC⁴²

TPJ⁴²

Other motivation

ACCg⁴⁸

(other’s actual motivation)—(other’s expected motivation)