Fig. 2: Results of the multiple-group structural equation modeling (Female group).

PCR Parent-child relationship improvement, PM Parental monitoring, CER Cognitive-emotional regulation,; DSE Digital activities for socialization and entertainment, OSE Online learning self-efficacy, CyI Cyberbullying involvement, WOR Perceived worries for future study and life. Black arrows represent statistically significant direct effect, dotted arrows represent statistically insignificant direct effect, and red arrow represents statistically significant different direct effect between male group and female group. *p < 0.05. **p < 0.01.