Fig. 1

Study diagram. Three subjects orally ingested glucose with three doses 75, 50, and 25 g in two durations of bolus and 2 h-continuous ingestion. Time course data of blood glucose level, insulin level, C-peptide level, GIP level, and GLP-1 levels were obtained (Fig. 2). We constructed models of the dynamics of these blood hormones and glucose for each subject as a forward problem (Fig. 3). Using the models, we predicted the glucose minimization pattern, the glucose ingestion pattern minimizing the peak value of blood glucose level for the ingestion of 50 g glucose within 60 min as an inverse problem, and validated the pattern experimentally (Fig. 4)