Fig. 4: Steady-state water vapor fluxes observed in osmotic membrane distillation (OMD, exploiting both thermal and salinity driving forces). | npj Clean Water

Fig. 4: Steady-state water vapor fluxes observed in osmotic membrane distillation (OMD, exploiting both thermal and salinity driving forces).

From: Process optimization of osmotic membrane distillation for the extraction of valuable resources from water streams

Fig. 4: Steady-state water vapor fluxes observed in osmotic membrane distillation (OMD, exploiting both thermal and salinity driving forces).The alternative text for this image may have been generated using AI.

a Water vapor flux values plotted as a function of the bulk temperature difference between the warm feed side and the cold draw side. b Water vapor flux values plotted as a function of the bulk draw solution temperature. In both graphs, green, pink, and blue symbols refer to bulk draw temperatures of 40 °C, 30 °C, 20 °C, respectively. Sideways triangles, circles, squares, and upright triangles refer to bulk temperature differences of 0°C (pure OD), 10 °C, 20 °C, 30 °C, respectively. Solid symbols refer to the presence of a 4 M CaCl2 in the draw side (OMD), while empty symbols to pure MD mode (same salinity on both sides). Dashed arrows connect each OMD data point with the respective MD data point, namely, data from test performed with analogous temperatures on either membrane side but with and without draw agent, respectively. The graphs actually report the exact same experimental data in two different visualizations to facilitate reading and to highlight different phenomena. All continuous lines connecting the data points are intended as guides for the eye.

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