Fig. 2: Chloride ion migration dynamics in different FCDI configurations.

Temporal changes in chloride ion concentration within the anolyte, catholyte, and desalination chambers operating in isolated closed-cycle (ICC) mode. a Chloride migration in the symmetric-AEM flow-electrode capacitive deionization (FCDI) system, showing an increase in the desalination chamber. b Chloride migration in the conventional FCDI system, showing depletion in the desalination chamber. The ICC mode was used to analyze ion migration pathways between the electrode and desalination chambers. Data points represent the mean ± SD from n = 3 independent experiments.