Fig. 3: Influence of applied voltage on arsenic removal performance.

a Arsenic removal efficiency over time at different applied voltages ranging from 0.8 V to 2.0 V. b The average salt removal rate (ASRR) and normalized energy consumption for salt removal (ENRS) were calculated for each applied voltage. The data illustrate the trade-off between removal efficiency and energy consumption. Data points represent the mean ± SD from n = 3 independent experiments.