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Localized or diffusive: insights into the source and geochemical dynamics of dissolved mercury contamination in groundwater of the mid-Gangetic Plains
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  • Published: 26 March 2026

Localized or diffusive: insights into the source and geochemical dynamics of dissolved mercury contamination in groundwater of the mid-Gangetic Plains

  • Manish Kumar1,2 na1,
  • Aseem Saxena2 na1,
  • Sachin Tripathi1,2 na1,
  • Durga Prasad Panday1,2,
  • Nilotpal Das3,
  • Rajesh Singh4,
  • Vivek Agarwal5,
  • Jaime Dueñas-Moreno1,
  • Abrahan Mora1 &
  • …
  • Jürgen Mahlknecht1 

npj Clean Water , Article number:  (2026) Cite this article

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Subjects

  • Chemistry
  • Environmental sciences
  • Hydrology

Abstract

Dissolved mercury (Hg) in groundwater poses underrecognized risks in industrial regions of South Asia. We assessed Hg occurrence, sources, and dynamics, with co-occurring metals, in the mid-Gangetic Plains (Kanpur), India. Hg was detected in all groundwater samples (n = 39; 0.02–3.8 µgL⁻¹), with 20% exceeding 1 µgL⁻¹ guideline, reflecting complex hydrological-geogenic–anthropogenic interactions, whereas river water samples (n = 11) showed no exceedances. Ca²⁺-Mg²⁺-SO₄²⁻ type water indicates sulfur dominance linked to anthropogenic inputs (industrial emissions or coal combustion), creating sulfate-rich aquifer conditions under which Hg enrichment is observed. Hydrochemical patterns, elevated EC/TDS, and the proximity to irrigated land suggest that irrigation return-flow mediated evaporation-based enrichment may act as an important driver, contributing to Hg concentrations. Eh-pH analysis indicates aquifer redox conditions conducive to the stability of reduced dissolved Hg species. Probability exceedance shows a sharp decline in higher Hg levels, suggesting anthropogenic inputs, primarily atmospheric deposition. Health risk assessment indicates significant non-carcinogenic risks, especially for children (HQ > 2.5), dominated by arsenic (As) in river water. Co-contaminants [As, U (uranium), Cr (chromium), and Fe (iron)], and altered multivariate ionic clustering warrant further investigation. This study underscores the need for targeted regulation informed by hydrochemical diagnostics and public health risk frameworks.

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Data availability

The raw dataset underlying this study is provided as a Supplementary Data file submitted with this manuscript.

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Acknowledgements

We are thankful for the funding support from the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), the Department of Science and Technology (DST), Govt. of India, under WTI (Water Technology Initiative) grant ref. DST/TMD/EWO/WTI/2K19/EWFH/2019/81 and Faculty of Excellence research support by Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico to M.K. We acknowledge the support of Tecnologico de Monterrey under Challenge-based Research Grant (IJST070-23EG75002).

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Author notes

  1. These authors contributed equally: Manish Kumar, Aseem Saxena, Sachin Tripathi.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, Mexico

    Manish Kumar, Sachin Tripathi, Durga Prasad Panday, Jaime Dueñas-Moreno, Abrahan Mora & Jürgen Mahlknecht

  2. Sustainability Cluster, School of Advanced Engineering, UPES, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

    Manish Kumar, Aseem Saxena, Sachin Tripathi & Durga Prasad Panday

  3. Encore Insoltech Pvt. Ltd., Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India

    Nilotpal Das

  4. Environmental Hydrology Division, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India

    Rajesh Singh

  5. Engineering and Environment, Northumbria University, Newcastle, UK

    Vivek Agarwal

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Contributions

M.K.: Conceptualization, visualization, final draft & editing, data interpretation, funding acquisition. AS: Sampling and analyses, data analysis and curation, original draft. S.T.: Sampling and analyses, data analysis and curation, visualization, revision and editing. D.P.P.: editing and revision, curation. N.D.: Writing and editing, data analysis, visualization, curation and interpretation. V.A.: Illustration plotting. J.D.M.: Illustration plotting. A.M.: Editing and revision. J.M.: Editing and revision. R.S.: Methods, data generation, sample analyses, editing and revision.

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Correspondence to Manish Kumar.

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Kumar, M., Saxena, A., Tripathi, S. et al. Localized or diffusive: insights into the source and geochemical dynamics of dissolved mercury contamination in groundwater of the mid-Gangetic Plains. npj Clean Water (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-026-00566-7

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  • Received: 13 September 2025

  • Accepted: 12 February 2026

  • Published: 26 March 2026

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-026-00566-7

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