Extended Data Fig. 3: Marginal abatement cost curves including hydrogen (that is, fuel-switching CO₂ prices).

Same as main Fig. 5, but here also including direct use of hydrogen. In 2020–25 and for e-methane (replacing natural gas), liquid e-fuels (replacing fossil liquids) and hydrogen (replacing liquids or gases) from the cost calculations shown in Fig. 4 and Extended Data Fig. 2, as well as direct electrification alternatives (green, illustrative curve) across non-electric energy and industrial sectors in the OECD (2014 energy end-use data from IEA ETP 2017⁶³). The additional end-use transformation costs of using hydrogen are illustrative only. Shaded areas represent uncertainty ranges. The three categories of energy end uses are sorted according to the costs of directly electrifying the respective applications (horizontal sorting from low to high costs of direct electrification). Within each of the four categories, the sectors are sorted according to their size.