Extended Data Fig. 1: Electrochemical plating/stripping behavior of Al metal on nonplanar nickel foam substrate.

a, Coulombic efficiency obtained at 0.8 mAh, 4 mA/cm2. Voltage profiles of Al plating/stripping: (b) 0.8 mAh, 4 mA/cm2;(c) 3.2 mAh, 1.6 mAh/cm2 and (d) 8.0 mAh, 1.6 mA/cm2. The results mean that the improvement made by using a nonplanar, inert architecture is very limited, particularly at practical capacities, that is 3.2 and 8 mAh/cm2.