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Formation pathway of high-efficiency kesterite solar cells fabricated through molecular ink chemistry

Nature Energy (2026)Cite this article

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Abstract

Solar cells based on kesterite materials, Cu2ZnSn(S,Se)4 (CZTSSe), offer a non-toxic, Earth-abundant solution for energy generation. However, they have historically struggled to achieve power conversion efficiencies comparable to those of other thin-film photovoltaic technologies. Here we highlight the critical role of the synthesis and formation pathway of these multinary semiconductors, discussing the challenges associated with kesterite layer fabrication and their impact on device performance. In particular, we discuss how the design of molecular inks in kesterite synthesis is key to overcoming these limitations, unveiling the connections between precursor chemistry, synthesis pathways and the formation of point and extended defects. We discuss how precise control over these factors has enabled kesterite solar cells to exceed 15% efficiency. Building on these advances, we propose strategies to further improve device performance. Finally, the insights presented here provide a framework for the exploration and development of other multinary semiconductor materials.

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Fig. 1: State of the art of kesterite solar cells.
Fig. 2: Solution-controlled oxidation state, from molecular precursors to precursor film.
Fig. 3: Role of precursor film in phase evolution to crystalline absorber.
Fig. 4: Phase evolution of amorphous film to high-quality absorber.
Fig. 5: Technological milestones in kesterite solar cell development via molecular inks.

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Acknowledgements

This project received funding from: the European Union’s Horizon research and innovation programme under grant agreements 866018 (SENSATE) and 101151487 (LEKPV); Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation projects PCI2023-145971-2 (ACT-FAST; from Clean Energy Transition Partnership Programme 2022), PID2022-140226OB-C31 and -C32 (INNO-PV) and PID2023-148976OB-C41 (CURIO-CITY); the National Key Research and Development Program of China (project 2019YFE0118100); the National Natural Science Foundation of China (project 22075150); and COST Association project CA-21148 (Renew-PV). This work is also part of the Maria de Maeztu Units of Excellence Programme (CEX2023-001300-M, funded by MICIU/AEI/10.13039/501100011033). The authors from the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya and Catalonia Institute for Energy Research belong to the Micro and Nanotechnologies for Solar Energy Group (MNTSolar) Consolidated Research Group of the Generalitat de Catalunya (2021 SGR 01286). K.S. acknowledges the Australian Research Council Discovery Early Career Researcher Award (DE230100021) and support from the Australian Centre of Advanced Photovoltaics as a recipient of the ACAP Fellowship (RG172864-B). Z.J.L.-K. acknowledges the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation for the Ramón y Cajal Fellowship (RYC2021-033239-I). S.G. thanks the Serra Húnter Programme. X.H. acknowledges financial support from the Australian Research Council Future Fellowships scheme (FT190100756). E.S. acknowledges the ICREA Academia programme.

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  1. These authors contributed equally: Alex Jimenez-Arguijo, Yuancai Gong.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Photovoltaic Lab, Micro and Nano Technologies Group, Electronic Engineering Department, Barcelona East School of Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain

    Alex Jimenez-Arguijo, Yuancai Gong, Ivan Caño, Outman El Khouja, Zacharie Jehl Li-Kao, Sergio Giraldo & Edgardo Saucedo

  2. Barcelona Research Center for Multiscale Science and Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain

    Alex Jimenez-Arguijo, Yuancai Gong, Ivan Caño, Outman El Khouja, Zacharie Jehl Li-Kao, Sergio Giraldo & Edgardo Saucedo

  3. Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials Science, Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang, China

    Jianjun Li

  4. Australian Centre for Advanced Photovoltaics, School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

    Kaiwen Sun & Xiaojing Hao

  5. State Key Laboratory for Organic Electronics and Information Displays, College of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Nanjing, China

    Hao Xin

  6. Solar Energy Materials and Systems Group, Catalonia Institute for Energy Research, Sant Adrià de Besòs, Spain

    Alejandro Perez-Rodriguez

  7. IN2UB, Departament d’Enginyeria Electrònica i Biomèdica, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

    Alejandro Perez-Rodriguez

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Contributions

A.J.-A., Y.G., J.L., H.X., X.H. and E.S. conceived of the article idea. A.J.-A. and Y.G. performed the literature search and curated the data. A.J.-A. wrote the original draft of the manuscript. A.J.-A., Y.G., I.C., O.E.K., J.L., K.S., Z.J.L.-K., S.G., H.X., A.P.-R., H.X. and E.S. reviewed and edited the manuscript. A.J.-A., Y.G., I.C., O.E.K. and S.G. visualized the results. J.L., K.S., Z.J.L.-K., S.G., X.H. and E.S. supervised the project. A.P.-R. and E.S. acquired funding. E.S. managed the project.

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Correspondence to Alex Jimenez-Arguijo, Yuancai Gong, Xiaojing Hao or Edgardo Saucedo.

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Jimenez-Arguijo, A., Gong, Y., Caño, I. et al. Formation pathway of high-efficiency kesterite solar cells fabricated through molecular ink chemistry. Nat Energy (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-025-01900-y

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