Fig. 3: Schematic reconstruction of the Holocene evolution of the Nile River near Luxor, Egypt.

a–d, During the Early and Middle Holocene (a), Epipalaeolithic deposits were incised by ~3.5 m during the Late Epipalaeolithic (b), which were subsequently incised by 3–5 m during the Old Kingdom (c) and again during the Middle Kingdom (d) by another 2–4 m, forming the Nile Valley’s substrate, while consistently narrowing its active floodplain at each erosional step. e–g, From the New Kingdom (e) onward, fluvial aggradation and channel belt formation starts and continued during the Third Intermediate Period (f) until the mid-twentieth century (g) when upstream dam construction started to reduce sediment supply. h, Until recently, the Nile River managed to gradually build up and enlarge its floodplain, eventually spanning almost its entire valley. Egyptian cultural periods: Extended Data Table 5; ages (ka): Table 1.