Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Review Article
  • Published:

Dimensionality engineering of perovskites for stable heterojunction-based photovoltaics

Nature Reviews Materials volume 11, pages 136–155 (2026)Cite this article

Subjects

This article has been updated

Abstract

Commercial solar cells require long-term operational stability. Despite their high performance, perovskite solar cells degrade owing to defects, impurities and mobile ions in the bulk and at the surface of their photo-absorbing 3D metal-halide perovskite films. Compared with 3D perovskites, low-dimensional (LD) perovskites exhibit greater phase stability and superior ambient, light and thermal stability. Notably, by forming 3D/LD heterostructures, these LD layers can also passivate defective 3D perovskite surfaces through surface reconstruction. However, this approach can increase energy mismatch and structural disorder at the contact interfaces owing to excess unbonded ligands. The LD perovskite capping layers can also feature mixed phases, random orientations and other inhomogeneities, which can create charge recombination channels, jeopardize charge transport and undermine long-term stability. Moreover, the monovalent ammonium-based ligands (phenethylammonium and butylammonium) commonly used to create 3D/LD heterojunctions are relatively unstable owing to weak van der Waals interactions btween the organic sheets and the inorganic framework, as well as their relatively low acid dissociation constant (pKa), which make them prone to deprotonation. To improve stability, it is thus imperative to use suitable organic ligands that form strong coordination bonds with the inorganic framework — ideally multivalent amines with high pKa values. Here, we review instability mechanisms at 3D/LD interfaces and discuss mitigation strategies, focusing on ligand chemistry and the fabrication of phase-pure, homogeneous LD capping layers to improve 3D/LD perovskite heterostructure stability.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on SpringerLink
  • Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: Dimensional heterojunction perovskite device architecture and performance progress.
Fig. 2: Compositional engineering of LD perovskite layers and properties.
Fig. 3: Fabrication schemes for 3D/LD heterostructures.
Fig. 4: 3D/LD interface deconstruction.
Fig. 5: Ligand chemistry design and classification.
Fig. 6: Phase-pure LD layer fabrication and engineering.
Fig. 7: Reported stability for different types of low-dimensional capping layers and their maximum power conversion efficiencies.

Similar content being viewed by others

Change history

  • 12 November 2025

    Since the version of the article initially published, affiliation 1 has been amended to “School of Science and Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, P. R. China” in the HTML and PDF versions of the article.

References

  1. Azmi, R. et al. Damp heat-stable perovskite solar cells with tailored-dimensionality 2D/3D heterojunctions. Science 376, 73–77 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Azmi, R. et al. Moisture-resilient perovskite solar cells for enhanced stability. Adv. Mater. 36, 2211317 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Grancini, G. & Nazeeruddin, M. K. Dimensional tailoring of hybrid perovskites for photovoltaics. Nat. Rev. Mater. 4, 4–22 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Wang, H. et al. Impurity-healing interface engineering for efficient perovskite submodules. Nature 634, 1091–1095 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Lee, J.-W., Tan, S., Seok, S. I., Yang, Y. & Park, N.-G. Rethinking the A cation in halide perovskites. Science 375, eabj1186 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Teale, S., Degani, M., Chen, B., Sargent, E. H. & Grancini, G. Molecular cation and low-dimensional perovskite surface passivation in perovskite solar cells. Nat. Energy 9, 779–792 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Yeom, K. M. et al. Quantum barriers engineering toward radiative and stable perovskite photovoltaic devices. Nat. Commun. 15, 4547 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Chen, H. et al. Quantum-size-tuned heterostructures enable efficient and stable inverted perovskite solar cells. Nat. Photon. 16, 352–358 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Zhang, F. et al. Metastable Dion–Jacobson 2D structure enables efficient and stable perovskite solar cells. Science 375, 71–76 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Xie, Z. et al. High-efficiency perovskite solar cells enabled by guanylation reaction for removing MACl residual and in-situ forming 2D perovskite. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 64, e202419070 (2025).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Li, S. et al. Anion-cation synergistic regulation of low-dimensional perovskite passivation layer for perovskite solar cells. Adv. Mater. 37, 2500988 (2025).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Chen, J. et al. Highly efficient and stable perovskite solar cells enabled by low-dimensional perovskitoids. Sci. Adv. 8, eabk2722 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Yun, Y. et al. Dimensional engineering of interlayer for efficient large-area perovskite solar cells with high stability under ISOS-L-3 aging test. Sci. Adv. 11, eadp3112 (2025).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Wang, T. et al. Dimensional regulation from 1D/3D to 2D/3D of perovskite interfaces for stable inverted perovskite solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 146, 7555–7564 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. deQuilettes, D. W. et al. Reduced recombination via tunable surface fields in perovskite thin films. Nat. Energy 9, 457–466 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Li, B. et al. Harnessing strong aromatic conjugation in low-dimensional perovskite heterojunctions for high-performance photovoltaic devices. Nat. Commun. 15, 2753 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Ma, K. et al. Holistic energy landscape management in 2D/3D heterojunction via molecular engineering for efficient perovskite solar cells. Sci. Adv. 9, eadg0032 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Sidhik, S. et al. Deterministic fabrication of 3D/2D perovskite bilayer stacks for durable and efficient solar cells. Science 377, 1425–1430 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Ye, S. et al. Expanding the low-dimensional interface engineering toolbox for efficient perovskite solar cells. Nat. Energy 8, 284–293 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Azmi, R. et al. Double-side 2D/3D heterojunctions for inverted perovskite solar cells. Nature 628, 93–98 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Jang, Y.-W. et al. Intact 2D/3D halide junction perovskite solar cells via solid-phase in-plane growth. Nat. Energy 6, 63–71 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Aydin, E. et al. Ligand-bridged charge extraction and enhanced quantum efficiency enable efficient n–i–p perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 14, 4377–4390 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Ugur, E. et al. Front-contact passivation through 2D/3D perovskite heterojunctions enables efficient bifacial perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells. Matter 6, 2919–2934 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Cho, K. T. et al. Selective growth of layered perovskites for stable and efficient photovoltaics. Energy Environ. Sci. 11, 952–959 (2018).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Huang, Y. et al. Finite perovskite hierarchical structures via ligand confinement leading to efficient inverted perovskite solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 16, 557–564 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Yoo, J. J. et al. An interface stabilized perovskite solar cell with high stabilized efficiency and low voltage loss. Energy Environ. Sci. 12, 2192–2199 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Li, J. et al. Homogeneous coverage of the low-dimensional perovskite passivation layer for formamidinium–caesium perovskite solar modules. Nat. Energy 9, 1540–1550 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Gu, H. et al. Phase-pure two-dimensional layered perovskite thin films. Nat. Rev. Mater. 8, 533–551 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Chang, X. et al. Solvent-dripping modulated 3D/2D heterostructures for high-performance perovskite solar cells. Nat. Commun. 16, 1042 (2025).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Mathew, P., Cho, J. & Kamat, P. V. Ramifications of ion migration in 2D lead halide perovskites. ACS Energy Lett. 9, 1103–1114 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Moral, R. F. et al. Anion and cation migration at 2D/3D halide perovskite interfaces. ACS Energy Lett. 9, 2703–2716 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Szabó, G. & Kamat, P. V. How cation migration across a 2D/3D interface dictates perovskite solar cell efficiency. ACS Energy Lett. 9, 193–200 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Kodalle, T. et al. An integrated deposition and passivation strategy for controlled crystallization of 2D/3D halide perovskite films. Adv. Mater. 36, 2309154 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Perini, C. A. R. et al. Interface reconstruction from Ruddlesden–Popper structures impacts stability in lead halide perovskite solar cells. Adv. Mater. 34, 2204726 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Luo, Y. et al. Dissolved-Cl2 triggered redox reaction enables high-performance perovskite solar cells. Nat. Commun. 14, 3738 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Luo, L. et al. Stabilization of 3D/2D perovskite heterostructures via inhibition of ion diffusion by cross-linked polymers for solar cells with improved performance. Nat. Energy 8, 294–303 (2023).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Subbiah, A. S. et al. Efficient blade-coated perovskite/silicon tandems via interface engineering. Joule 9, 101767 (2025).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Peng, Z. et al. Revealing degradation mechanisms in 3D/2D perovskite solar cells under photothermal accelerated ageing. Energy Environ. Sci. 17, 8313–8324 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Sutanto, A. A. et al. In situ analysis reveals the role of 2D perovskite in preventing thermal-induced degradation in 2D/3D perovskite interfaces. Nano Lett. 20, 3992–3998 (2020).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Sutanto, A. A. et al. 2D/3D perovskite engineering eliminates interfacial recombination losses in hybrid perovskite solar cells. Chem. 7, 1903–1916 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Smith, I. C., Hoke, E. T., Solis-Ibarra, D., McGehee, M. D. & Karunadasa, H. I. A layered hybrid perovskite solar-cell absorber with enhanced moisture stability. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 53, 11232–11235 (2014).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Calabrese, J. et al. Preparation and characterization of layered lead halide compounds. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 113, 2328–2330 (1991).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Mitzi, D. B., Feild, C. A., Harrison, W. T. A. & Guloy, A. M. Conducting tin halides with a layered organic-based perovskite structure. Nature 369, 467–469 (1994).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Mitzi, D. B. in Progress in Inorganic Chemistry Vol. 48 (ed. Karlin, K. D.) 1–121 (Wiley, 1999).

  45. Gao, L. et al. Improved environmental stability and solar cell efficiency of (MA,FA)PbI3 perovskite using a wide-band-gap 1D thiazolium lead iodide capping layer strategy. ACS Energy Lett. 4, 1763–1769 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Kong, T. et al. Perovskitoid-templated formation of a 1D@3D perovskite structure toward highly efficient and stable perovskite solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 11, 2101018 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Zhang, F. et al. Surface lattice engineering through three-dimensional lead iodide perovskitoid for high-performance perovskite solar cells. Chem 7, 774–785 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Liu, C. et al. Two-dimensional perovskitoids enhance stability in perovskite solar cells. Nature 633, 359–364 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Tsai, H. et al. High-efficiency two-dimensional Ruddlesden–Popper perovskite solar cells. Nature 536, 312–316 (2016).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Saidaminov, M. I., Mohammed, O. F. & Bakr, O. M. Low-dimensional-networked metal halide perovskites: the next big thing. ACS Energy Lett. 2, 889–896 (2017).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Jodlowski, A. D. et al. Large guanidinium cation mixed with methylammonium in lead iodide perovskites for 19% efficient solar cells. Nat. Energy 2, 972–979 (2017).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Pei, F. et al. Inhibiting defect passivation failure in perovskite for perovskite/Cu(In,Ga)Se2 monolithic tandem solar cells with certified efficiency 27.35%. Nat. Energy 10, 824–835 (2025).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Ding, Y. et al. Cation reactivity inhibits perovskite degradation in efficient and stable solar modules. Science 386, 531–538 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Yang, Y. et al. Amidination of ligands for chemical and field-effect passivation stabilizes perovskite solar cells. Science 386, 898–902 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Wu, W.-Q. et al. Bilateral alkylamine for suppressing charge recombination and improving stability in blade-coated perovskite solar cells. Sci. Adv. 5, eaav8925 (2019).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  56. Chen, P., He, D., Huang, X., Zhang, C. & Wang, L. Bilayer 2D–3D perovskite heterostructures for efficient and stable solar cells. ACS Nano 18, 67–88 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Zhang, Y. et al. The crucial role of organic ligands on 2D/3D perovskite solar cells: a comprehensive review. Adv. Energy Mater. 14, 2403326 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Huang, Y. et al. 2D or not 2D? Selectively formed low-dimensional perovskitoids based on chiral organic cation to passivate perovskite solar cells. Appl. Mater. Today 28, 101550 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Wang, Z. et al. Efficient ambient-air-stable solar cells with 2D–3D heterostructured butylammonium-caesium-formamidinium lead halide perovskites. Nat. Energy 2, 17135 (2017).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Grancini, G. et al. One-year stable perovskite solar cells by 2D/3D interface engineering. Nat. Commun. 8, 15684 (2017).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  61. Cao, D. H., Stoumpos, C. C., Farha, O. K., Hupp, J. T. & Kanatzidis, M. G. 2D homologous perovskites as light-absorbing materials for solar cell applications. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 137, 7843–7850 (2015).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Quan, L. N. et al. Ligand-stabilized reduced-dimensionality perovskites. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 138, 2649–2655 (2016).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Huang, X. et al. Orthogonal solvent approach in dimensionality-heterointerface perovskite photovoltaics. ACS Energy Lett. 10, 982–990 (2025).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Lin, Y. et al. Ultra-large dipole moment organic cations derived 3D/2D p–n heterojunction for high-efficiency carbon-based perovskite solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 17, 4692–4702 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Pei, F. et al. A binary 2D perovskite passivation for efficient and stable perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells. Nat. Commun. 15, 7024 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Lee, S. et al. Deciphering 2D perovskite’s role in perovskite solar cells via intact 3D/2D junctions. Energy Environ. Sci. 17, 6234–6244 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Perini, C. A. R. et al. Vapor-deposited n = 2 Ruddlesden–Popper interface layers aid charge carrier extraction in perovskite solar cells. ACS Energy Lett. 8, 1408–1415 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Liu, Y., Guo, J., Zhou, H., Li, C. & Guo, X. Correlating π–π stacking of aromatic diammoniums with stability and dimensional reduction of Dion–Jacobson 2D perovskites. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 146, 8198–8205 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Li, X. et al. Vertically oriented 2D perovskite layer with n = 1 phase enables efficient and stable inverted perovskite solar cells. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 16, 60387–60393 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Lin, D. et al. Surface planarization-epitaxial growth enables uniform 2D/3D heterojunctions for efficient and stable perovskite solar modules. Adv. Sci. 12, 2407380 (2025).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Choi, Y. et al. A vertically oriented two-dimensional Ruddlesden–Popper phase perovskite passivation layer for efficient and stable inverted perovskite solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 15, 3369–3378 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Wen, J. et al. Heterojunction formed via 3D-to-2D perovskite conversion for photostable wide-bandgap perovskite solar cells. Nat. Commun. 14, 7118 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Xie, L. et al. Realizing reduced imperfections via quantum dots interdiffusion in high efficiency perovskite solar cells. Adv. Mater. 32, 2003296 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Mubarok, M. A. et al. Regulating the quantum dots integration to improve the performance of tin–lead perovskite solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 14, 2304276 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Ye, F. et al. Tailoring low-dimensional perovskites passivation for efficient two-step-processed FAPbI3 solar cells and modules. Adv. Energy Mater. 14, 2302775 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Xu, Y. et al. Multicomponent solvent engineered spatially uniform 2D/3D perovskite heterojunction for solar cells. ACS Energy Lett. 10, 2035–2044 (2025).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Zhang, Q. et al. A universal ternary solvent system of surface passivator enables perovskite solar cells with efficiency exceeding 26%. Adv. Mater. 36, 2410390 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Yan, Y. et al. Polarity and moisture induced trans-grain-boundaries 2D/3D coupling structure for flexible perovskite solar cells with high mechanical reliability and efficiency. Energy Environ. Sci. 15, 5168–5180 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Tang, C. et al. Infiltrated 2D/3D heterojunction with tunable electric field landscape for robust inverted perovskite solar cells with over 24% efficiency. Small 20, 2306978 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Zhang, F. et al. Buried-interface engineering of conformal 2D/3D perovskite heterojunction for efficient perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells on industrially textured silicon. Adv. Mater. 35, 2303139 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Liang, X. et al. Judicious fluorination of perovskite quantum wells enables over 25% efficiency in inverted solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 14, 2402243 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Yang, G. et al. Stable and low-photovoltage-loss perovskite solar cells by multifunctional passivation. Nat. Photon. 15, 681–689 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Proppe, A. H. et al. Multication perovskite 2D/3D interfaces form via progressive dimensional reduction. Nat. Commun. 12, 3472 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Zhao, K. et al. peri-Fused polyaromatic molecular contacts for perovskite solar cells. Nature 632, 301–306 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Jung, E. H. et al. Efficient, stable and scalable perovskite solar cells using poly(3-hexylthiophene). Nature 567, 511–515 (2019).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Shan, S. et al. DMSO-assisted control enables highly efficient 2D/3D hybrid perovskite solar cells. Small 21, 2410172 (2025).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Wang, Y. et al. A soft nonpolar-soluble two-dimensional perovskite for general construction of mixed-dimensional heterojunctions. Adv. Mater. 37, 2419750 (2025).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Soto-Montero, T. et al. Single-source pulsed laser-deposited perovskite solar cells with enhanced performance via bulk and 2D passivation. Joule 8, 3412–3425 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Tan, S. et al. Spontaneous formation of robust two-dimensional perovskite phases. Science 388, 639–645 (2025).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Zhao, X. et al. Accelerated aging of all-inorganic, interface-stabilized perovskite solar cells. Science 377, 307–310 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Li, Z. et al. Stabilized hole-selective layer for high-performance inverted p–i–n perovskite solar cells. Science 382, 284–289 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Qian, J. et al. Dion–Jacobson-phase 2D Sn-based perovskite comprising a high dipole moment of π-conjugated short-chain organic spacers for high-performance solar cell applications. ACS Nano 18, 15055–15066 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Ahmad, S. et al. Dion–Jacobson phase 2D layered perovskites for solar cells with ultrahigh stability. Joule 3, 794–806 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Zhao, R. et al. Rigid conjugated diamine templates for stable Dion–Jacobson-type two-dimensional perovskites. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 143, 19901–19908 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Ren, H. et al. Efficient and stable Ruddlesden–Popper perovskite solar cell with tailored interlayer molecular interaction. Nat. Photon. 14, 154–163 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Cao, H. et al. Triphenylamine-based hole-transporting ligands for 2D/3D FAPbI3 perovskite solar cells. ACS Energy Lett. 10, 2017–2025 (2025).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Zhang, J. et al. Engineering spacer conjugation for efficient and stable 2D/3D perovskite solar cells and modules. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 64, e202413303 (2025).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Li, X., Hoffman, J. M. & Kanatzidis, M. G. The 2D halide perovskite rulebook: how the spacer influences everything from the structure to optoelectronic device efficiency. Chem. Rev. 121, 2230–2291 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Mao, L. et al. Hybrid Dion–Jacobson 2D lead iodide perovskites. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 140, 3775–3783 (2018).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Li, B. et al. Suppressing interfacial recombination with a strong-interaction surface modulator for efficient inverted perovskite solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 12, 2202868 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Liang, J. et al. Volatile 2D Ruddlesden–Popper perovskite: a gift for α-formamidinium lead triiodide solar cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32, 2207177 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Hu, J., Kerner, R. A., Pelczer, I., Rand, B. P. & Schwartz, J. Organoammonium-ion-based perovskites can degrade to Pb0 via amine–Pb(II) coordination. ACS Energy Lett. 6, 2262–2267 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Wang, M. et al. Ammonium cations with high pKa in perovskite solar cells for improved high-temperature photostability. Nat. Energy 8, 1229–1239 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Liang, J. et al. Origins and influences of metallic lead in perovskite solar cells. Joule 6, 816–833 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Kerner, R. A., Xu, Z., Larson, B. W. & Rand, B. P. The role of halide oxidation in perovskite halide phase separation. Joule 5, 2273–2295 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Tan, S. et al. Surface reconstruction of halide perovskites during post-treatment. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 143, 6781–6786 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Zhu, H. et al. Long-term operating stability in perovskite photovoltaics. Nat. Rev. Mater. 8, 569–586 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  108. Li, H. et al. 2D/3D heterojunction engineering at the buried interface towards high-performance inverted methylammonium-free perovskite solar cells. Nat. Energy 8, 946–955 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Bu, T. et al. Lead halide-templated crystallization of methylamine-free perovskite for efficient photovoltaic modules. Science 372, 1327–1332 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Aydin, E. et al. Enhanced optoelectronic coupling for perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells. Nature 623, 732–738 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Park, S. M. et al. Engineering ligand reactivity enables high-temperature operation of stable perovskite solar cells. Science 381, 209–215 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Jiang, Q. et al. Surface passivation of perovskite film for efficient solar cells. Nat. Photon. 13, 460–466 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Jiang, Q. et al. Surface reaction for efficient and stable inverted perovskite solar cells. Nature 611, 278–283 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Shi, P. et al. Micro-homogeneity of lateral energy landscapes governs the performance in perovskite solar cells. Nat. Commun. 15, 9703 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  115. Liu, C. et al. Tuning structural isomers of phenylenediammonium to afford efficient and stable perovskite solar cells and modules. Nat. Commun. 12, 6394 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  116. Gong, C. et al. Functional-group-induced single quantum well Dion–Jacobson 2D perovskite for efficient and stable inverted perovskite solar cells. Adv. Mater. 36, 2307422 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Tong, J. et al. Carrier lifetimes of >1 μs in Sn–Pb perovskites enable efficient all-perovskite tandem solar cells. Science 364, 475–479 (2019).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Shi, P. et al. Oriented nucleation in formamidinium perovskite for photovoltaics. Nature 620, 323–327 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Liu, T. et al. Spacer engineering using aromatic formamidinium in 2D/3D hybrid perovskites for highly efficient solar cells. ACS Nano 15, 7811–7820 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Wang, F. et al. Ionic liquid-induced 1D perovskite: exploring 1D perovskite structure to 1D/3D heterojunction-based photovoltaics. Adv. Energy Mater. 14, 2400021 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Zhang, Y. et al. Efficient inverted perovskite solar cells with a low-dimensional halide/perovskite heterostructure. Adv. Energy Mater. 12, 2202191 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Wei, N. et al. Multi-level passivation of MAPbI3 perovskite for efficient and stable photovoltaics. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32, 2108944 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Zhan, Y. et al. Elastic lattice and excess charge carrier manipulation in 1D–3D perovskite solar cells for exceptionally long-term operational stability. Adv. Mater. 33, 2105170 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Zhang, C. et al. Crystallization manipulation and holistic defect passivation toward stable and efficient inverted perovskite solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 16, 3825–3836 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  125. Li, P. et al. Phase pure 2D perovskite for high-performance 2D–3D heterostructured perovskite solar cells. Adv. Mater. 30, 1805323 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  126. Vasileiadou, E. S. et al. Insight on the stability of thick layers in 2D Ruddlesden–Popper and Dion–Jacobson lead iodide perovskites. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 143, 2523–2536 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Duan, T. et al. Chiral-structured heterointerfaces enable durable perovskite solar cells. Science 384, 878–884 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Sidhik, S. et al. Two-dimensional perovskite templates for durable, efficient formamidinium perovskite solar cells. Science 384, 1227–1235 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Hossain, M. et al. Insights into the cation migration kinetics across 2D/3D perovskite interfaces and strategy for its prevention. J. Phys. Chem. C 128, 10936–10944 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Jošt, M. et al. Perovskite solar cells go outdoors: field testing and temperature effects on energy yield. Adv. Energy Mater. 10, 2000454 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  131. Wang, Y. et al. Encapsulation and stability testing of perovskite solar cells for real life applications. ACS Mater. Au 2, 215–236 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  132. Khenkin, M. V. et al. Consensus statement for stability assessment and reporting for perovskite photovoltaics based on ISOS procedures. Nat. Energy 5, 35–49 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  133. Domanski, K., Alharbi, E. A., Hagfeldt, A., Grätzel, M. & Tress, W. Systematic investigation of the impact of operation conditions on the degradation behaviour of perovskite solar cells. Nat. Energy 3, 61–67 (2018).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. De Rossi, F. et al. An interlaboratory study on the stability of all-printable hole transport material-free perovskite solar cells. Energy Technol. 8, 2000134 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  135. Chen, R. et al. Reduction of bulk and surface defects in inverted methylammonium- and bromide-free formamidinium perovskite solar cells. Nat. Energy 8, 839–849 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Shang, Y. et al. Highly stable hybrid perovskite light-emitting diodes based on Dion–Jacobson structure. Sci. Adv. 5, eaaw8072 (2019).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  137. Tan, S. et al. Stability-limiting heterointerfaces of perovskite photovoltaics. Nature 605, 268–273 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Kim, S.-G. et al. Nanographene coupled with interfacial pyrene derivatives for thermally stable perovskite solar cells. ACS Energy Lett. 8, 2267–2275 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Tang, Y. et al. Triplet management at ligand–perovskite interface to enhanced photovoltaics performance. ACS Energy Lett. 9, 4323–4330 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Li, N. et al. Liquid medium annealing for fabricating durable perovskite solar cells with improved reproducibility. Science 373, 561–567 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Kim, G. et al. Impact of strain relaxation on performance of α-formamidinium lead iodide perovskite solar cells. Science 370, 108–112 (2020).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Bai, Y. et al. Initializing film homogeneity to retard phase segregation for stable perovskite solar cells. Science 378, 747–754 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Yan, L. et al. Fabrication of perovskite solar cells in ambient air by blocking perovskite hydration with guanabenz acetate salt. Nat. Energy 8, 1158–1167 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Min, H. et al. Efficient, stable solar cells by using inherent bandgap of α-phase formamidinium lead iodide. Science 366, 749–753 (2019).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Li, C. et al. Tailoring the dimensionality of 2D/3D heterojunctions for inverted perovskite solar cells. ACS Energy Lett. 9, 779–788 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Gunes, U. et al. Drastic influence of substituent position on orientation of 2D layers enables efficient and stable 3D/2D perovskite solar cells. Cell Rep. Phys. Sci. 4, 101380 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Zhang, Y. et al. Construction of 2D/3D/2D-structured perovskite for high-performance and stable solar cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33, 2307949 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Min, H. et al. Perovskite solar cells with atomically coherent interlayers on SnO2 electrodes. Nature 598, 444–450 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Zhao, Y. et al. Inactive (PbI2)2RbCl stabilizes perovskite films for efficient solar cells. Science 377, 531–534 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Zhang, S. et al. Minimizing buried interfacial defects for efficient inverted perovskite solar cells. Science 380, 404–409 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Yu, S. et al. Homogenized NiOx nanoparticles for improved hole transport in inverted perovskite solar cells. Science 382, 1399–1404 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Tang, H. et al. Reinforcing self-assembly of hole transport molecules for stable inverted perovskite solar cells. Science 383, 1236–1240 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Gu, H. et al. Nanoscale phase management of the 2D/3D heterostructure toward efficient perovskite solar cells. Sci. Bull. 69, 2853–2861 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Shi, Z. et al. Ligand-mediated surface reaction for achieving pure 2D phase passivation in high-efficiency perovskite solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 147, 1055–1062 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Yang, N. et al. An in situ cross-linked 1D/3D perovskite heterostructure improves the stability of hybrid perovskite solar cells for over 3000 h operation. Energy Environ. Sci. 13, 4344–4352 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Li, F. et al. Hydrogen-bond-bridged intermediate for perovskite solar cells with enhanced efficiency and stability. Nat. Photon. 17, 478–484 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Song, Z. et al. Single-crystal-assisted in situ phase reconstruction enables efficient and stable 2D/3D perovskite solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 146, 1657–1666 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Pica, G. et al. Photo-ferroelectric perovskite interfaces for boosting VOC in efficient perovskite solar cells. Nat. Commun. 15, 8753 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  159. Fan, J. et al. Thermodynamically self-healing 1D–3D hybrid perovskite solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 8, 1703421 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  160. Semerci, A. et al. A novel multi-functional thiophene-based organic cation as passivation, crystalline orientation, and organic spacer agent for low-dimensional 3D/1D perovskite solar cells. Adv. Opt. Mater. 11, 2300267 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Liu, P. et al. Lattice-matching structurally-stable 1D@3D perovskites toward highly efficient and stable solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 10, 1903654 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Tian, C. et al. Minimizing interfacial energy loss and volatilization of formamidinium via polymer-assisted D–A supramolecular self-assembly interface for inverted perovskite solar cells with 25.78% efficiency. Adv. Mater. 36, 2404797 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Lu, H. et al. Vapor-assisted deposition of highly efficient, stable black-phase FAPbI3 perovskite solar cells. Science 370, eabb8985 (2020).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Park, J. et al. Controlled growth of perovskite layers with volatile alkylammonium chlorides. Nature 616, 724–730 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Jeong, J. et al. Pseudo-halide anion engineering for α-FAPbI3 perovskite solar cells. Nature 592, 381–385 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Kim, M. et al. Conformal quantum dot SnO2 layers as electron transporters for efficient perovskite solar cells. Science 375, 302–306 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Zhang, T. et al. Ion-modulated radical doping of spiro-OMeTAD for more efficient and stable perovskite solar cells. Science 377, 495–501 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Wang, T. et al. Transporting holes stably under iodide invasion in efficient perovskite solar cells. Science 377, 1227–1232 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Wang, H. et al. Pre-annealing treatment for high-efficiency perovskite solar cells via sequential deposition. Joule 6, 2869–2884 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Kim, H. et al. Optimal interfacial engineering with different length of alkylammonium halide for efficient and stable perovskite solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 9, 1902740 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Cho, K. T. et al. Water-repellent low-dimensional fluorous perovskite as interfacial coating for 20% efficient solar cells. Nano Lett. 18, 5467–5474 (2018).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Kim, H. et al. Shallow-level defect passivation by 6H perovskite polytype for highly efficient and stable perovskite solar cells. Nat. Commun. 15, 5632 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  173. Yoo, J. J. et al. Efficient perovskite solar cells via improved carrier management. Nature 590, 587–593 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Fan, Y. et al. Myth behind metastable and stable n-hexylammonium bromide-based low-dimensional perovskites. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 145, 8209–8217 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Yang, H. et al. Functionalized 2D/3D heterojunction with reversible iodine-alkenes reaction in perovskite solar cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34, 2407828 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Liang, Z. et al. Homogenizing out-of-plane cation composition in perovskite solar cells. Nature 624, 557–563 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  177. Ji, R. et al. Spontaneous formation of 1D/3D perovskite heterojunctions for efficient inverted perovskite solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 14, 2304126 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Lin, J. et al. Eliminating hole extraction barrier in 1D/3D perovskite heterojunction for efficient and stable carbon-based CsPbI3 solar cells with a record efficiency. Adv. Mater. 36, 2404561 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. Wang, F. et al. Ionic liquid engineering enables 1D/3D perovskite photovoltaics with >25% efficiency: a real-time study exploring formation mechanism of 1D perovskites. Nano Energy 129, 110063 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Elsenety, M. M. et al. Stability improvement and performance reproducibility enhancement of perovskite solar cells following (FA/MA/Cs)PbI3–xBrx/(CH3)3SPbI3 dimensionality engineering. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 3, 2465–2477 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  181. Jiao, H. et al. Perovskite grain wrapping by converting interfaces and grain boundaries into robust and water-insoluble low-dimensional perovskites. Sci. Adv. 8, eabq4524 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  182. Zhao, J. et al. Strained hybrid perovskite thin films and their impact on the intrinsic stability of perovskite solar cells. Sci. Adv. 3, eaao5616 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  183. Liang, Y. et al. Toward stabilization of formamidinium lead iodide perovskites by defect control and composition engineering. Nat. Commun. 15, 1707 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  184. Xue, D.-J. et al. Regulating strain in perovskite thin films through charge-transport layers. Nat. Commun. 11, 1514 (2020).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  185. Zhang, Z., Wang, H., Jacobsson, T. J. & Luo, J. Big data driven perovskite solar cell stability analysis. Nat. Commun. 13, 7639 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  186. Zhou, C. et al. Dual interfacial modification with 1D perovskite for self-assembled monolayer based inverted perovskite solar cells. Nano Energy 128, 109811 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  187. Wang, H. et al. Controlled Dion−Jacobson low-dimensional surface phase enables highly efficient and stable perovskite solar cells. Nano Energy 128, 109875 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Xu, Z. et al. Highly efficient and stable Dion−Jacobson perovskite solar cells enabled by extended π-conjugation of organic spacer. Adv. Mater. 33, 2105083 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Li, Q. et al. Beyond thiophene: unraveling the role of selenophene-based spacer in Dion−Jacobson perovskites for efficient solar cells. Small 21, 2504703 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  190. Lu, D. et al. Thiophene-based two-dimensional Dion–Jacobson perovskite solar cells with over 15% efficiency. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 142, 11114–11122 (2020).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Dong, Y. et al. Orbital interactions between the organic semiconductor spacer and the inorganic layer in Dion–Jacobson perovskites enable efficient solar cells. Adv. Mater. 35, 2205258 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. Isikgor, F. H. et al. Concurrent cationic and anionic perovskite defect passivation enables 27.4% perovskite/silicon tandems with suppression of halide segregation. Joule 5, 1566–1586 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Yang, T. et al. One-stone-for-two-birds strategy to attain beyond 25% perovskite solar cells. Nat. Commun. 14, 839 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  194. Guo, J. et al. Ultralong carrier lifetime exceeding 20 μs in lead halide perovskite film enable efficient solar cells. Adv. Mater. 35, 2212126 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Xu, Z. et al. Efficient and stable inverted MA/Br-free 2D/3D perovskite solar cells enabled by α-to-δ phase transition inhibition and crystallization modulation. Energy Environ. Sci. 18, 1354–1365 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  196. Wang, J. et al. Growth of 1D nanorod perovskite for surface passivation in FAPbI3 perovskite solar cells. Small 18, 2104100 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Science and Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, P. R. China

    Randi Azmi & Yanping Liu

  2. Center for Renewable Energy and Storage Technologies (CREST), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, Saudi Arabia

    Drajad Satrio Utomo, Shynggys Zhumagali & Stefaan De Wolf

Authors
  1. Randi Azmi
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Drajad Satrio Utomo
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Yanping Liu
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Shynggys Zhumagali
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Stefaan De Wolf
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

R.A. conceived the idea, wrote the original draft and contributed substantially to discussion of the content. R.A., D.S.U., Y.L. and S.Z. researched data for the article. R.A. and Y.L. drew the schematics and prepared the figures. All authors wrote the article, reviewed and/or edited the manuscript before submission and during revision.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Randi Azmi or Stefaan De Wolf.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information

Nature Reviews Materials thanks Letian Dou, Guichuan Xing and Yixin Zhao for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Azmi, R., Utomo, D.S., Liu, Y. et al. Dimensionality engineering of perovskites for stable heterojunction-based photovoltaics. Nat Rev Mater 11, 136–155 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-025-00847-6

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Version of record:

  • Issue date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-025-00847-6

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing