Extended Data Fig. 4: SEM images of aCNS after charging to 1,860 mAh g−1.

Left image: the nanospheres in aCNS were readily observed as NaCl depositing on the surface of aCNS were oxidized. Middle and right images: NaCl microcrystals that were either loosely deposited on top of the nanospheres clusters (not inside the nanospheres, middle image) or deposited in the gaps between the aCNS clusters (right image) were not oxidizable, and could not contribute to the battery’s rechargeable capacity. Middle and right images have different magnifications.