Extended Data Fig. 4: Temporal changes in carbon density.

a, Scatter plot between the passive microwave L-VOD³⁶ and our carbon density (wood + foliage) aggregated to 25 × 25-km grids. b, The linear relationship seen in a was used to convert annual L-VOD to the unit carbon density. L-VOD aboveground woody carbon density as well as TRENDY models²³ values (all vegetation carbon) were averaged over the study area for the 0–1,000 mm year⁻¹ rainfall zone for the period 2011–2019. Correlating L-VOD from the dry season, to avoid the complication of herbaceous vegetation, with our carbon-density map aggregated to 25 × 25-km resolution showed a moderately high level of agreement (r = 0.72); however, the strong scattering especially in low-rainfall areas also showed that the uncertainty was high, impeding the use of L-VOD³⁷ for local applications in arid areas. Nevertheless, the linear relationship was used to convert L-VOD to the unit carbon density to derive temporal dynamics in carbon density, which showed stable woody carbon stocks during 2010–2019 (about 2.0 Mg C year⁻¹) for this region, without clear trend or inter-annual variations, suggesting that none of droughts, deforestation or restoration had a measurable impact on carbon stocks over the past decade. TRENDY models showed a variety of responses but the ensemble showed a similar behaviour as L-VOD, although when herbaceous vegetation and belowground biomass were included, a variety of different magnitudes resulted.