Figure 1

The intervention effectiveness described as relative risk (RR) for each study. RR = 1 suggests no difference in the risk of carnivore attack between treatment and control groups. RR > 1 suggests there is a higher risk of carnivore attack in the treatment group, and the value can be infinitely large. RR < 1 suggests that there is a lower risk of carnivore attack in the treatment group, and the minimum possible value is 0 (no attack in the treatment group). Each row in the figure represents a study or sub-study of an intervention in a certain setting, with the carnivore species and type of livestock described in the figure. Reference to the original publication is written in brackets. For more information of each study please refer to Supplementary Table S1. Additional information for particular studies: (a) For Woodroffe et al.²³, odds-ratios were converted to RR using an online Odds Ratio to Risk Ratio calculator⁶⁴. (b) Iliopoulos et al.³⁶ measure severity of the wolf attack once it has occurred. (c) Palmer et al.²⁴ b state that the treatment herd was divided into two bands, and all losses occurred in the band without the livestock guarding dog. (d) For Bradley et al.³⁹ we report hazard ratio HR (1850 days) from the original study. (e) Hawley et al.⁴⁰, Davidson-Nelson & Gehring²⁹, and Lance et al.¹⁴ measure trespass rate into baited areas instead of livestock losses.