Figure 6

Predation rates (mean ± 1SE) on lepidopteran larvae (a) and eggs (b) under four treatments in the laboratory: (1) control, (2) stinkbugs alone, (3) ladybird beetles alone, and (4) stinkbugs with ladybird beetles. Different letters above bars indicate significant differences between treatments (two-way ANOVA followed by a Tukey HSD test, p < 0.05). Black bars represent predicted predation values for the combination of stinkbugs and ladybird beetles based on the multiplicative risk model¹⁰⁴. The asterisk indicates a significant difference in predation between observed and predicted values (p < 0.05). Back-transformed means ± SE are presented but tests were performed using log-transformed data.