Figure 1

Tests of the Universality Hypothesis for Facial Configurations and Vocal Cues in Small-Scale Societies. Findings summarized for anger, disgust, fear, sadness, and surprise; happiness is the only pleasant category tested in all studies except Tracy and Robins (2008), and therefore perception can be (and likely is) guided by distinguishing valence in those studies. All studies used photographs of posed facial configurations or posed vocalizations, except Crivelli, Jarillo et al. (2016), Study 2, and Crivelli et al. (2017), Study 1, which used dynamic as well as static posed configurations and static spontaneous configurations from Papua New Guinea (PNG), respectively. In Bryant and HC Barrett (2008), participants were tested in a second language (Spanish) in which they received training. A subset of choice-from-array studies did not control whether foils and target facial configurations could be distinguished by valence and/or arousal, with the exception of Gendron et al. 2014a, Study 2, which controlled for valence and arousal; Sauter et al. 2015 (2010 re-analysis) and Cordaro et al. (2015) controlled for valence only. N = sample size. Unsupported = consistency and specificity at chance, or any level of consistency above chance combined with evidence of no specificity. Weak support = consistency between 20% and 40% (weak) for at least a single emotion category (other than happiness) combined with above-chance specificity for that category, or consistency between 41% and 70% (moderate) for at least a single category (other than happiness) with unknown specificity. Moderate support = consistency between 41% and 70% (moderate) combined with any evidence of above-chance specificity those categories, or consistency above 70% (strong) for at least a single category (other than happiness) with unknown specificity. Strong support = strong evidence of consistency (above 70%) and strong evidence of specificity for at least a single emotion category (other than happiness). Superscript a: Specificity levels were not reported. Superscript a1: Specificity inferred from reported results. Superscript a2: Traditional specificity and consistency tests are inappropriate for this method, but the results are placed here based on the original author’s interpretation of multidimensional scaling and clustering results. Superscript b: The sample size, marginal means, and exact pattern of errors reported for the Sadong samples is identical in Sorenson (1975), Sample 3 and Ekman et al. (1969); Sorenson described using a free-labeling method and Ekman et al. (1969) described using a choice-from-array method in which participants were shown photographs and asked to choose a label from a small list of emotion words; Ekman (1994) indicated, however, that he did not use a free-labeling method, implying that the samples are distinct. Superscript c: Sorenson (1975), Sample 2 included three groups of Fore participants (those with little, moderate, and most other-group contact). The pattern of findings is nearly identical for the subgroup with the most contact and the data reported for the Fore in Ekman et al. (1969); again, Sorenson described using a free-labeling method and Ekman et al. (1969) described using a choice-from-array method. It is questionable whether the Sadong and the Fore subgroup should be considered a small-scale society (see Sorenson, 1975, p. 362 and 363), but we include them here to avoid falsely dichotomizing cultures as “isolated from” versus “exposed to” one another (Fridlund, 1994; Gewald, 2010). Superscript d: These are likely the same sample because the sample sizes and pattern of data are identical for all emotion categories except for the fear category, which is extremely similar, and for the disgust category, which includes responses for contempt in Ekman and Friesen (1971) but was kept separate in Sorenson (1975). Superscript e: Participants were children. Superscript f: Participants were adolescents. Superscript g: The Dani sample reported in Ekman (1972) is likely a subset of the data from Ekman, Heider, Friesen, and Heider (unpublished manuscript).