Table 1 Beluga whale association patterns and behavior at ten locations that span different populations and habitats across the species range.
Group type | Location | Date | Description | Behaviour* | Field analysis | Genetic analysis | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Category | Details | Likely function | Group size | Group ages** | Sample size | Sex | Sample ages** | |||||
A | Adult–calf dyad | Svalbard | 8/23/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, O | Directed movement, close association | Travel, natal care | 2 | A, C | 2 | F, M | A, C |
Adult–calf dyad | Svalbard | 8/23/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, O | Directed movement, close association | Travel, natal care | 2 | A, C | 2 | F | A, C | |
Adult–calf dyad | Svalbard | 8/24/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, O | Directed movement, close association | Travel, natal care | 2 | A, C | 2 | F | A, C | |
Adult–calf dyad | Svalbard | 8/21/1999 | Summer aggregation | T, O | Directed movement, close association | Travel, natal care | 2 | A, C | 2 | F | A, C | |
Adult–calf dyad | Norton Sound | 9/23/1995 | Fall movements | T, O | Directed movement, close association | Travel, natal care | 2 | A, C | 2 | F, M | A, C | |
Adult–calf dyad | Cook Inlet | 10/31/2001 | Resident population | T, O | Directed movement, close association | Travel, natal care | 2 | A, C | 2 | F | A, C | |
Adult–calf dyad | Mackenzie delta | 8/1/1997 | Summer aggregation | T, O | Directed movement, close association | Travel, natal care | 2 | A, C | 2 | F, M | A, C | |
Adult–calf dyad | Cunningham Inlet | 7/25/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, O | Directed movement, close association | Travel, natal care | 2 | A, C | ||||
A1 | Triad | Cunningham Inlet | 7/25/1998 | Summer aggregation | T | Large white, neonate, 2/3 grey: in association | Travel, natal care | 3 | A, C | |||
B | Adult–calf group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/26/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Contact, turning, loose group | Social interaction, creshe | 15–20 | A, C | 3 | F | A |
Adult–calf group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/23/1998 | Summer aggregation | T | Adult with 3/4 grey-white and 1/2 grey | Travel | 3 | A, J, C | ||||
Adult–calf group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/23/1998 | Summer aggregation | T | 3 adults w. calves | Travel | 6 | A, C | ||||
Adult–calf group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/23/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, O | 2 adults with neonates, close association | Travel, natal care | 4 | A, C | ||||
Adult–calf group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/24/1998 | Summer aggregation | S, O | 9 adult w. calves, rubbing on substrate, swimming upside down, spy hopping | Social interaction, molting | 18 | A, C | ||||
Adult–calf group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/25/1998 | Summer aggregation | T | 5 adults w. calves, loose group in close association, directed movement | Travel, natal care | 10 | A, C | ||||
C | Juveniles only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/24/1998 | Summer aggregation | S, O | Contact, rapid turning, bubble blasts, vocalizations, chase, rubbing | Social interaction, play, molt | 3 | J | 3 | F | J |
Juveniles only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/23/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Contact, twisting, spy hopping | Social interaction, play | 2 | J | ||||
Juveniles only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/23/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, S | Swim in unison | Social interaction, travel, dominance | 4 | J | ||||
Juveniles only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/25/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Active interactions | Social interaction, play | 3 | J | ||||
Juveniles only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/26/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Individuals moving between 4 sub-groups, contact, upsidedown, aerial, rubbing, | Social interaction, play, molt | 17 | J | ||||
D | Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/25/1998 | Summer aggregation | S, O | Rubbing, swim in close formation, aggression to others—observed for 3 h | Social interaction, dominance, molt | 7 | A | 5 | M | A |
Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/27/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Swim in close formation, aggression to others | Social interaction, dominance | 2 | A | 2 | M | A | |
Adults only group | Svalbard | 8/4/1997 | Summer aggregation and fall movements | T | Directed movement, travelled together for months | Travel | 3 | A | 3 | M | A | |
Adults only group | Svalbard | 8/12/1997 | Summer aggregation | T | Directed movement | Travel | 2 | A | 2 | M | A | |
Adults only group | Mackenzie Delta | 29/7/1997 | Summer aggregation | T | Directed movement, synchronized summer movements | Travel | 3 | A | 2 | M | A | |
Adults only group | Mackenzie Delta | 31/7/1997 | Summer aggregation | T | Directed movement, synchronized summer movements | Travel | ~ 15 | A | 2 | M | A | |
Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/23/1998 | Summer aggregation | T | Directed movement, head up, avoided by other whales | Travel, dominance | 5 | A | ||||
Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/23/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, S | Swim in unison-parallel, avoided by other whales | Social interaction, travel, dominance | 10 | A | ||||
Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/24/1998 | Summer aggregation | S, T | Patrol beach back and forth | Social interaction, travel, dominance | 11 | A | ||||
Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/25/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, O | Slowly swimming, rubbing on substrate | Travel, molt | 12 | A | ||||
Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/26/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Contact, lateral ventrum presentation, chasing off smaller whales | Social interaction, dominance, sexual (?) | 2 | A | ||||
Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/26/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, S | Audible vocalizations, slow, coordinated movements | Social interaction, travel | 2 | A | ||||
Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/26/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Rolling, etc. chasing off other whales | Social interaction | 8 | A | ||||
Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/27/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, S | Loose group; directed movement, rolling, spyhop, 'foghorn' vocal | Travel, social interaction | 12 | A | ||||
Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/27/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Patrolling shore, contact, aggression to others, aerial flipper, | Socisal interaction, dominance, sexual (?) | 3 | A | ||||
Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/28/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Chasing Smaller whales, vocalizations | Social interaction, dominance | 3 | A | ||||
Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/27/1998 | Summer aggregation | T | Directed movement in close association | Travel | 2 | A | ||||
E | Mixed age group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/24/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Contact, rapid turning, bubble blasts, vocalizations | Social interaction | 5 | A, J | 2 | F | A, J |
Mixed age group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/28/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Contact, rapid turning | Social interaction | ~ 50 | A, J | 6 | F, M | A, J | |
Mixed age group | Svalbard | 8/22/1998 | Summer aggregation | T | Directed movement | Travel | 5 | A, J | 5 | F, M | A, J | |
Mixed age group | Anadyr Bay | 7/18/2001 | Summer aggregation | T, S | Directed movement, contact, rapid turning | Travel, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 11 | F, M | A, J, C | |
Mixed age group | Yakutat Bay | 5/19/2005 | Resident group | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, social interaction | Travel, social interaction, possible feed | 6–8 | A, J | 2 | M, – | A | |
Mixed age group | Yakutat Bay | 5/19/2008 | Resident group | T | Directed movement | Travel | 5–8 | A, J | 2 | A, J | ||
Mixed age group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/26/1998 | Summer aggregation | T | 2 adult whites w. adult–calf pair: in association | Travel | 4 | A, C | ||||
Mixed age group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/27/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, S | Directed movement, range of activities | Travel, social interaction, play | 3 | |||||
Mixed age group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/29/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, S | 2 adult whites loosely associating w. and following adult-neonate pair | Travel, pursuit-courtship | 4 | A, C | ||||
F | Adults only herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 6/26/1998 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A | 54 | M | A |
Adults only herd‡ | Kotzebue Sound | 8/23–8/28/2007 | Summer movements, anomalous event | T, O | Directed movement, concentrate in very shallow water | Predator avoidance | _ | A | 50 | F, M | A | |
G | Mixed-age herd† | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 6/27/1988 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 27 | F, M | A, J, C |
Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 7/4/1993 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 47 | F, M | A, J, C | |
Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 6/26/1994 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 22 | F, M | A, J, C | |
Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 6/30/1995 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 18 | F, M | A, J, C | |
Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 6/30/1996 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 35 | F, M | A, J, C | |
Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 6/29/1999 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 39 | F, M | A, J, C | |
Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 7/3/2001 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 42 | F, M | A, J, C | |
Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 7/7/2002 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 50 | F, M | A, J, C | |
Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 6/23/2003 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 36 | F, M | A, J, C | |
Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 6/18/2004 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 41 | F, M | ||
Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 6/26/2005 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 41 | F, M | ||
Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 7/13/2006 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 28 | F, M | ||
Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 6/22/2007 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 64 | F, M | ||
Mixed-age herd | Husky Lakes | 11/9/1989 | Ice-entrapment event | T, M | Traveling, milling | _ | A | 9 | F, M | A | ||
Mixed-age herd | Husky Lakes | 11/17/1989 | Ice-entrapment event | T, M | Traveling, milling | _ | A, C | 4 | F, M | A | ||
Mixed-age herd | Husky Lakes | 12/7/1996 | Ice-entrapment event | T, M | Traveling, milling | _ | A, J, C | 17 | F, M | A, J, C | ||
Mixed-age herd | Cook Inlet | 8/28/1996 | Mass-stranding event | _ | Mass mortality | 60 | A | 5 | M, – | A | ||
H | Daily aggregation | Cunningham Inlet | 7/24/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, S, O | Individuals biopsied from one location over 10 h | Molt | _ | A, J | 9 | F, M | A, J |
Daily aggregation | Cunningham Inlet | 7/25/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, S, O | Individuals biopsied from one location over 9 h | _ | A, J | 9 | F, M | A, J | ||
Daily aggregation | Cunningham Inlet | 7/27/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, S, O | Individuals biopsied from one location over 2 h | _ | A | 5 | F, M | A | ||
Daily aggregation | Cook Inlet | 10/13/1995 | Resident population, aggregate at river mouth | M | Milling in same river mouth | Feeding | _ | A, J | 2 | F, M | A, J | |
Daily aggregation | Cook Inlet | 10/7/1996 | Resident population, aggregate at river mouth | M | Milling in same river mouth | Feeding | _ | A | 3 | M | A | |
Daily aggregation | Cook Inlet | 5/13/1998 | Resident population, aggregate at river mouth | M | Milling in same river mouth | Feeding | _ | A | 2 | F, M | A | |
Daily aggregation | Cook Inlet | 5/31/1999 | Resident population, aggregate at river mouth | M | Milling in same river mouth | Feeding | _ | A, J | 2 | F, M | A, J | |
Daily aggregation | Cook Inlet | 8/29/1999 | Resident population | At same location | _ | A | 3 | F, M | A | |||
Daily aggregation | Cook Inlet | 8/11/1999 | Resident population | Sampled at same location within a few hours | _ | A | 2 | F, M | A | |||
Daily aggregation | Cook Inlet | 8/13/2001 | Resident population | Sampled at same location within a few hours | _ | A | 2 | F | A | |||
Daily aggregation | Cook Inlet | 8/3/2002 | Resident population | Sampled at same location within a few hours | _ | A | 3 | F, M | A | |||
Daily aggregation | Anadyr Bay | 8/25/2008 | Summer aggregation | M | Sampled at same location within a few hours | _ | A, J, C | 7 | ||||
I | Multi-day aggregation | Svalbard | 8/23–8/24/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, M, S | Sampled at same location | _ | A, J, C | 10 | F, M | A, J, C | |
Multi-day aggregation | Svalbard | 10/14–10/19/2000 | Fall aggregation | T, M, S | Sampled at same location | _ | A, J | 6 | F, M | A, J | ||
Multi-day aggregation | Svalbard | 10/17–10/19/2001 | Fall aggregation | T, M, S | Sampled at same location | _ | A, J, C | 8 | F, M | A, J, C | ||
Multi-day aggregation | Anadyr Bay | 8/22–8/25/2008 | Summer aggregation | T, M, S | Sampled at same location | _ | A, J, C | 13 | ||||
