Figure 2

Site frequency of Plasmodium-infected anophelines along gradients of forest cover and time. (A) P. vivax-Ny. darlingi occurrence peaked in sites where the percentage of forest cover was intermediate (~ 50%). The maximum likelihood probability curve was estimated as a Gaussian distribution (mean = 47.64, sd = 15.86; p < 0.001). (B) P. vivax-Ny. darlingi occurrence showed two deforestation timeline peaks at (1) ~ 10 years (Gaussian distribution; mean = 10.6, sd = 5.77; p < 0.001) and (2) ~ 35 years (Log-normal distribution; meanlog = 3.59, sdlog = 0.13; p < 0.001) from the start of deforestation for the establishment of human settlements. The deforestation timeline distributions are significantly different (t = 12, df = 15, p < 0.001). (C) P. falciparum-Ny. darlingi occurrence was higher in sites with intermediate levels of forest cover (~ 50%) (Gaussian distribution; mean = 48.64, sd = 21.12; p < 0.001). (D) The deforestation timeline curves for the occurrence of infected mosquitoes were observed at (1) ~ 10 years (Gaussian distribution; mean = 11.5, sd = 6.65; p < 0.001) and (2) ~ 40 years (Gaussian distribution; mean = 38.25, sd = 5.1; p < 0.001). The deforestation timeline distributions were significantly different (t = 8, df = 8, p < 0.001). (E), P. falciparum and/or P. vivax occurrence in other Anophelinae species was higher in sites with forest cover of ≥ 60% (Gaussian distribution; mean = 60.28, sd = 14; p < 0.001). (F), A deforestation timeline peak at 12 years from the beginning of human occupation (Gaussian distribution; mean = 12, sd = 4.67; p < 0.001).