Figure 3

Pathogenic site frequency with forest cover and time. (A) Maximum frequency in sites having an intermediate percentage of forest cover (= 50%; Gaussian distribution; mean = 49.8, sd = 18.7; p < 0.001). (B) Bimodal presence with two deforestation timeline peaks, one peak at (1) 11 years (Gaussian distribution; mean = 11.1, sd = 5.5; p < 0.001) and a second peak at (2) 37 years after starting the deforestation process (log-normal distribution; meanlog = 3.6, sdlog = 0.13; p < 0.001). The two deforestation timeline distributions were significantly different (t = 15, df = 32, p < 0.001). Underlying mechanisms of malaria risk according to forest cover and time: 1, forest conservation⁴²; 2, deforestation³³; 3, the forest fringe hypothesis⁹ and the FMH^10,17; 4, the FMH^10,17; 5, malaria-deforestation bidirectional effects ² and 6, a rebound in malaria transmission^2,10,17.