Table 3 Crude and adjusted GEE regression estimates and associated 95% CIs for child outcomes at measurement waves 9-years, 11-years, and 14-years.

Child ln(BMI)	Mothers				Fathers
Child ln(BMI)	\(\widehat{\beta }\)(95% CI)	p	Adjust. \(\widehat{\beta }\) (95% CI)	P	\(\widehat{\beta }\)(95% CI)	p	Adjust. \(\widehat{\beta }\) (95% CI)	p
Measurement wave		< 0.001		< 0.001		< 0.001		< 0.001
9-years	0 (reference)		0 (reference)
11-years	0.062 (0.054, 0.070)		0.062 (0.054, 0.070)		0 (reference)		0 (reference)
14-years	0.236 (0.228, 0.245)		0.236 (0.228, 0.245)		0.182 (0.171, 0.193)		0.182 (0.171, 0.193)
Highest education qualification at baseline		0.66		0.31		0.018		0.58
No formal qual	−0.012 (−0.043, 0.020)		−0.025 (−0.059, 0.010)		0.064 (0.016, 0.112)		0.028 (−0.024, 0.079)
Secondary school	0.002 (−0.031, 0.034)		−0.005 (−0.038, 0.029)		0.029 (−0.025, 0.083)		0.016 (−0.038, 0.069)
Post-secondary school	0 (reference)		0 (reference)		0 (reference)		0 (reference)
Further study (over 0–6 years)		0.016		0.017		0.008		0.022
Yes	−0.033 (−0.059, −0.006)		−0.033 (−0.060, −0.006)		−0.063 (−0.110, −0.017)		−0.056 (−0.104, −0.008)
No	0 (reference)		0 (reference)		0 (reference)		0 (reference)
Student currently		0.71		0.62		0.25		0.25
Yes	0.004 (−0.019, 0.027)		0.006 (−0.017, 0.029)		−0.057 (−0.153, 0.040)		−0.056 (−0.152, 0.039)
No	0 (reference)		0 (reference)		0 (reference)		0 (reference)

Child risk taking behaviours	OR (95% CI)	p	aOR (95% CI)	p	IRR (95% CI)	p	aIRR (95% CI)	p
Measurement wave		< 0.001		< 0.001		0.006		0.008
9-years	1 (reference)		1 (reference)
11-years	1.16 (0.79, 1.69)		1.16 (0.79, 1.70)		1 (reference)		1 (reference)
14-years	2.12 (1.47, 3.08)		2.19 (1.50, 3.19)		1.86 (1.19, 2.91)		1.83 (1.17, 2.88)
Highest education qualification at baseline		0.76		0.42		0.073		0.39
No formal qual	1.18 (0.76, 1.83)		1.39 (0.85, 2.26)		1.50 (0.77, 2.94)		1.39 (0.65, 2.95)
Secondary school	1.09 (0.69, 1.72)		1.20 (0.74, 1.96)		0.63 (0.24, 1.65)		0.81 (0.31, 2.13)
Post-secondary school	1 (reference)		1 (reference)		1 (reference)		1 (reference)
Further study (over 0–6 years)		0.71		0.92		0.017		0.013
Yes	1.08 (0.73, 1.59)		1.02 (0.68, 1.52)		0.24 (0.08, 0.78)		0.22 (0.07, 0.73)
No	1 (reference)		1 (reference)		1 (reference)		1 (reference)
Student currently		0.18		0.17
Yes	1.51 (0.83, 2.74)		1.53 (0.83, 2.81)		unestimatable		unestimatable
No	1 (reference)		1 (reference)

Child depression	IRR (95% CI)	p	aIRR (95% CI)	p	IRR (95% CI)	p	aIRR (95% CI)	p
Measurement wave		< 0.001		< 0.001		< 0.001		< 0.001
9-years	1 (reference)		1 (reference)
11-years	0.68 (0.63, 0.74)		0.68 (0.63, 0.74)		1 (reference)		1 (reference)
14-years	0.53 (0.47, 0.59)		0.53 (0.47, 0.59)		0.78 (0.68, 0.89)		0.79 (0.69, 0.91)
Highest education qualification at baseline		0.072		0.10		0.31		0.16
No formal qual	1.16 (1.01, 1.33)		1.14 (0.98, 1.33)		1.03 (0.82, 1.29)		1.05 (0.82, 1.35)
Secondary school	1.16 (1.01, 1.34)		1.16 (1.01, 1.35)		0.89 (0.69, 1.15)		0.84 (0.65, 1.09)
Post-secondary school	1 (reference)		1 (reference)		1 (reference)		1 (reference)
Further study (over 0–6 years)		0.067		0.13		0.99		0.84
Yes	0.90 (0.80, 1.01)		0.91 (0.81, 1.03)		1.00 (0.78, 1.29)		1.03 (0.79, 1.33)
No	1 (reference)		1 (reference)		1 (reference)		1 (reference)
Student currently		0.31		0.26		0.21		0.24
Yes	1.15 (0.88, 1.51)		1.17 (0.89, 1.52)		0.61 (0.29, 1.32)		0.63 (0.29, 1.37)
No	1 (reference)		1 (reference)		1 (reference)		1 (reference)

Crude estimates controlled for measurement wave, highest education qualification at baseline, further study (over 0–6 years), and student currently variables; adjusted estimates controlled for measurement wave, highest education qualification at baseline, further study (over 0–6 years), student currently, age group, ethnicity, years lived in New Zealand, marital status, and cultural orientation. Additionally, for mothers, adjusted estimates were also controlled for household income and household size.

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