Table 3 Robustness to unmeasured confounding (E-values) for the associations between candidate antecedents and subsequent volunteering (N = 13,771)a.

From: Identifying pathways to increased volunteering in older US adults

 

Effect estimateb

Confidence interval limitc

Health behaviors

Frequent physical activity

1.64

1.37

Smoking

1.86

1.15

Heavy drinking

1.34

1.00

Sleep problems

1.29

1.00

Physical health

Number of physical conditions

1.20

1.00

 Diabetes

1.39

1.00

 Hypertension

1.23

1.00

 Stroke

1.87

1.13

 Cancer

1.18

1.00

 Heart disease

1.24

1.00

 Lung disease

1.67

1.00

 Arthritis

1.27

1.00

 Overweight/obese

1.07

1.00

Physical functioning limitations

1.85

1.51

Cognitive impairment

1.94

1.58

Chronic pain

1.26

1.00

Self-rated health

1.35

1.15

Hearing

1.10

1.00

Eyesight

1.24

1.00

Psychological well-being

Positive affect

1.48

1.32

Life satisfaction

1.33

1.11

Optimism

1.20

1.00

Purpose in life

1.42

1.24

Mastery

1.27

1.02

Health mastery

1.23

1.00

Financial mastery

1.19

1.00

Psychological distress

Depression

1.47

1.00

Depressive symptoms

1.37

1.15

Hopelessness

1.33

1.12

Negative affect

1.23

1.00

Constraints

1.45

1.25

Anxiety

1.33

1.13

Trait Anger

1.18

1.00

State Anger

1.31

1.05

Cynical hostility

1.22

1.00

Stressful life events

1.14

1.00

Financial strain

1.03

1.00

Daily discrimination

1.11

1.00

Major discrimination

1.23

1.00

Social factors

Living with spouse/partner

1.44

1.00

Contact children

 < Every few months

Reference

Reference

 1-2x/month

1.33

1.00

 1-2x/week

1.57

1.00

 > 3x/week

1.37

1.00

Contact other family

 < Every few months

Reference

Reference

 1-2x/month

1.21

1.00

 1-2x/week

1.14

1.00

 >3x/week

1.20

1.00

Contact friends

 < Every few months

Reference

Reference

 1-2x/month

1.88

1.46

 1-2x/week

2.11

1.73

 > 3x/week

2.27

1.86

Loneliness

1.09

1.00

Closeness with spouse

1.19

1.00

Number of close children

1.09

1.00

Number of close other family

1.14

1.00

Number of close friends

1.20

1.00

Positive social support from spouse

1.24

1.00

Positive social support from children

1.20

1.00

Positive social support from other family

1.11

1.00

Positive social support from friends

1.35

1.19

Social strain from spouse

1.25

1.00

Social strain from children

1.24

1.00

Social strain from other family

1.11

1.00

Social strain from friends

1.26

1.05

Religious service attendance

 Not at all

Reference

Reference

 < 1x/week

2.37

1.92

 > 1x/week

4.02

3.36

Helping friends/neighbors/relatives

 0 h/year

Reference

Reference

 1–49 h/year

1.72

1.46

 50–99 h/year

2.00

1.69

 100–199 h/year

1.95

1.55

≥ 200 h/year

1.93

1.50

Social status ladder

1.26

1.00

Change in social status ladder

 Moved down

Reference

Reference

 No change

1.10

1.00

 Moved up

1.04

1.00

Work

In labor force

1.36

1.00

  1. aSee VanderWeele and Ding52 for the formula for calculating E-values.
  2. bThe E-values for effect estimates are the minimum strength of association on the risk ratio scale that an unmeasured confounder would need to have with both the exposure and the outcome to fully explain away the observed association between the exposure and outcome, conditional on the measured covariates.
  3. cThe E-values for the limit of the 95% confidence interval (CI) closest to the null denote the minimum strength of association on the risk ratio scale that an unmeasured confounder would need to have with both the exposure and the outcome to shift the confidence interval to include the null value, conditional on the measured covariates.
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