Table 3 Exploratory analysis between pain and outcomes of interest using generalized linear modeling. The primary predictor of interest was from the Brief Pain Inventory (“pain right now” on a 0–10 numeric rating scale) at baseline. The results suggest that pain is not associated with parenting attachment, parenting self-efficacy. The results suggest that there may be an association between baseline pain and infant gross motor development scores, although the accuracy of the model fit was not significant. BPI Brief Pain Inventory, Short Form, MPAS Maternal Parent Attachment Scale, ASQ-3 Ages and Stages Questionnaire, 3rd Edition, PMP-SE parenting self-efficacy scale, MSPSS Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, STAI state-trait anxiety inventory, EPDS Edinburgh postnatal depression scale, EST estimate, STD standard deviation.

Outcome	MPAS				ASQ-3								PMP-SE
Outcome	MPAS				Gross motor				Personal social				PMP-SE
Period	6 Weeks		3 Months		6 Weeks		3 Months		6 Weeks		3 Months		6 Weeks		3 Months
Predictor	EST (STD)	R²	EST (STD)	R²	EST (STD)	R²	EST (STD)	R²	EST (STD)	R²	EST (STD)	R²	EST (STD)	R²	EST (STD)	R²
Primary predictor
BPI (Short #6)	− 0.22 (0.142)	0.029	− 0.118 (0.133)	0.010	− 0.154 (0.294)	0.005	1.25 (0.314)***	0.929	− 0.083 (0.204)	0.002	0.139 (0.897)	0.008	− 0.375 (0.366)	0.013	− 0.133 (0.342)	0.002
Other baseline covariates
Age	− 0.177 (0.075)*	0.067	− 0.173 (0.073)*	0.072	− 0.096 (0.167)	0.007	− 0.561 (0.442)	0.617	0.13 (0.104)	0.022	− 1.06 (0.51)	0.590	− 0.326 (0.195)	0.035	− 0.188 (0.191)	0.013
MSPSS	0.032 (0.025)	0.019	0.025 (0.023)	0.016	− 0.074 (0.066)	0.024	0.24 (0.534)	0.168	− 0.019 (0.035)	0.004	− 0.36 (0.526)	0.190	0.042 (0.067)	0.005	0.054 (0.059)	0.011
STAI	0.053 (0.038)	0.022	0.054 (0.035)	0.029	0.02 (0.074)	0.001	0.357 (1.856)	0.036	− 0.002 (0.056)	0.000	− 0.14 (0.431)	0.034	0.254 (0.1)*	0.073	0.199 (0.09)*	0.059
EPDS	− 0.192 (0.089)*	0.052	− 0.201 (0.089)*	0.062	0.416 (0.209)	0.071	0.921 (0.684)	0.645	− 0.017 (0.142)	0.000	1.875 (0.535)*	0.804	− 0.658 (0.255)*	0.075	− 0.524 (0.229)*	0.063

**Note that bolded P value indicated statistical significance at 95% confidence interval, i.e., *0.01 < = P < 0.05, **0.001 < = P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001.
***P-value indicates statistical significance at 95% Confidence Interval regarding each covariate to the outcome; R² reflects the accuracy of the model fit.

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