Table 2 Bivariable multilevel logistic regression analysis of factors associated with childhood stunting, wasting, and underweight among children aged 0–23 months in Ethiopia, EMDHS 2019.
From: Determinants of undernutrition among young children in Ethiopia
Characteristics | Stunted | Wasting | Underweight | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Proportion, 95% CI | Unadjusted OR (95% CI) | p-value | Proportion, 95% CI | Unadjusted OR (95% CI) | p-value | Proportion, 95% CI | Unadjusted OR (95% CI) | p-value | |
Child-related factors | |||||||||
Age (months) | |||||||||
< 6 | 17.2 (14.3–20.6) | Ref | 30.9 (24.9–37.5) | Ref | 18.1 (14.5–22.3) | Ref | |||
6–11 | 20.8 (17.7–24.4) | 1.46 (1.06–2.02) | 0.021 | 22.2 (17.0–28.4) | 0.70 (0.46–1.08) | 0.111 | 22.8 (18.9–27.4) | 1.41 (0.97–2.03) | 0.069 |
12–17 | 30.6 (26.9–34.5) | 2.18 (1.60–2.97) | p < 0.001 | 26.1 (20.5–32.5) | 0.77 (0.51–1.16) | 0.223 | 28.9 (24.6–33.8) | 1.68 (1.18–2.39) | 0.004 |
18–23 | 31.3 (27.6–35.3) | 3.68 (2.67–5.05) | p < 0.001 | 20.8 (15.8–26.8) | 0.82 (0.53–1.26) | 0.367 | 30.0 (25.6–34.9) | 2.80 (1.96–4.01) | p < 0.001 |
Sex | |||||||||
Male | 56.3 (52.1–60.4) | Ref | 58.9 (52.1–65.4) | Ref | 59.6 (54.5–64.4) | Ref | |||
Female | 43.7 (39.6–47.8) | 0.72 (0.59–0.89) | 0.003 | 41.1 (34.5–47.9) | 0.65 (0.48–0.89) | 0.008 | 40.4 (35.6–45.5) | 0.62 (0.49–0.79) | p < 0.001 |
Number of under-five children | |||||||||
1 | 35.7 (31.7–39.8) | Ref | 32.8 (26.6–39.7) | Ref | 36.8 (31.9–41.9) | Ref | |||
2+ | 64.3 (60.1–68.2) | 1.13 (0.91–1.41) | 0.268 | 67.2 (60.3–73.4) | 1.22 (0.87–1.69) | 0.239 | 63.2 (58.1–68.1) | 1.01 (0.78–1.31) | 0.913 |
Birth order | |||||||||
1 | 20.4 (17.2–24.1) | Ref | 17.2 (12.5–23.1) | Ref | 20.3 (16.5–24.8) | Ref | |||
2–4 | 48.7 (44.5–52.9) | 1.17 (0.88–1.54) | 0.269 | 41.4 (34.7–48.4) | 1.14 (0.74–1.75) | 0.561 | 43.7 (38.7–48.9) | 1.03 (0.74–1.41) | 0.873 |
4+ | 30.9 (27.1–34.9) | 1.11 (0.82–1.51) | 0.485 | 41.4 (34.7–48.4) | 1.92 (1.22–2.99) | 0.004 | 35.9 (31.1–41.0) | 1.38 (0.97–1.94) | 0.065 |
Birth interval | |||||||||
< 24 months | 20.0 (16.4–24.0) | Ref | 17.2 (12.1–23.7) | Ref | 17.9 (13.8–22.7) | Ref | |||
≥ 24 months | 80.0 (75.9–83.5) | 0.84 (0.62–1.14) | 0.261 | 82.8 (76.2–87.9) | 1.11 (0.71–1.74) | 0.651 | 82.1 (77.2–86.1) | 1.01 (0.71–1.44) | 0.951 |
Vitamin A in last 6 months | |||||||||
Yes | 59.7 (55.4–63.8) | Ref | 74.7 (68.1–80.4) | Ref | 61.5 (56.3–66.4) | Ref | |||
No | 40.3 (36.1–44.5) | 1.43 (1.14–1.17) | 0.002 | 25.3 (19.6–31.8) | 0.60 (0.42–0.86) | 0.006 | 38.5 (33.6–43.7) | 1.21 (0.93–1.56) | 0.146 |
Currently breastfeeding | |||||||||
Yes | 17.5 (14.5–20.9) | Ref | 16.2 (11.6–21.9) | Ref | 19.2 (15.5–23.6) | Ref | |||
No | 82.5 (79.1–85.5) | 1.28 (0.96–1.71) | 0.088 | 83.8 (78.0–88.3) | 1.06 (0.69–1.62) | 0.780 | 80.8 (76.4–84.5) | 1.53 (1.11–2.11) | 0.010 |
Minimum meal frequency | |||||||||
Yes | 53.2 (49.1–57.3) | Ref | 39.6 (33.1–46.4) | Ref | 48.1 (43.1–53.2) | Ref | |||
No | 46.8 (42.6–50.9) | 0.64 (0.52–0.80) | p < 0.001 | 60.4 (53.5–66.8) | 1.40 (1.02–1.93) | 0.037 | 51.9 (46.7–56.9) | 0.93 (0.73–1.19) | 0.558 |
Minimum dietary diversity | |||||||||
Yes | 7.6 (5.6–10.2) | Ref | 3.5 (1.7–7.2) | Ref | 5.8 (3.8–8.8) | Ref | |||
No | 92.4 (89.8–94.3) | 1.13 (0.76–1.67) | 0.542 | 96.5 (92.7–98.3) | 2.75 (1.24–6.07) | 0.012 | 94.1 (91.2–96.1) | 1.57 (0.95–2.58) | 0.076 |
Maternal factors | |||||||||
Age (years) | |||||||||
< 20 | 8.9 (6.8–11.6) | Ref | 10.6 (7.0–15.7) | Ref | 10.6 (7.8–14.2) | Ref | |||
20–34 | 75.6 (71.8–79.1) | 0.91 (0.62–1.34) | 0.654 | 70.7 (63.9–76.6) | 0.72 (0.43–1.20) | 0.209 | 71.0 (66.1–75.5) | 0.76 (0.50–1.15) | 0.198 |
35–49 | 15.4 (12.6–18.7) | 0.84 (0.54–1.32) | 0.449 | 18.7 (13.8–24.7) | 0.98 (0.53–1.79) | 0.942 | 18.4 (14.7–22.7) | 0.97 (0.59–1.58) | 0.910 |
Educational level | |||||||||
No education | 55.5 (51.3–59.7) | 1.35 (1.08–1.68) | 0.008 | 64.1 (57.2–70.5) | 1.91 (1.37–2.65) | 0.002 | 59.6 (54.4–64.6) | 1.67 (1.29–2.15) | p < 0.001 |
Primary and above | 44.4 (40.3–48.6) | Ref | 35.8 (29.4–42.7) | Ref | 40.4 (35.4–45.6) | Ref | |||
ANC visit | |||||||||
Yes | 71.8 (67.7–75.4) | Ref | 60.2 (53.1–66.9) | Ref | 67.5 (62.4–72.2) | Ref | |||
No | 28.2 (24.5–32.2) | 1.26 (0.98–1.62) | 0.075 | 39.8 (33.1–46.9) | 1.98 (1.42–2.78) | p < 0.001 | 32.5 (27.7–37.6) | 1.58 (1.19–2.10) | 0.001 |
Place of delivery | |||||||||
Home | 49.2 (45.0–53.5) | 1.32 (1.05–1.66) | 0.019 | 54.6 (47.5–61.4) | 1.52 (1.09–2.12) | 0.013 | 54.5 (49.3–59.6) | 1.72 (1.31–2.24) | p < 0.001 |
Health facility | 50.8 (46.5–54.9) | Ref | 45.4 (38.5–52.4) | Ref | 45.5 (40.3–50.7) | Ref | |||
Household-level factors | |||||||||
Household size | |||||||||
1–4 | 30.3 (26.5–34.3) | Ref | 25.3 (19.7–31.7) | Ref | 27.9 (23.4–32.7) | Ref | |||
5+ | 69.7 (65.7–73.4) | 1.08 (0.85–1.36) | 0.527 | 74.7 (68.2–80.3) | 1.39 (0.97–1.98) | 0.065 | 72.1 (67.3–76.5) | 1.21 (0.93–1.59) | 0.160 |
Wealth index | |||||||||
Poorest | 34.4 (30.5–38.5) | 2.40 (1.69–3.41) | p < 0.001 | 50.5 (43.5–57.4) | 3.09 (1.89–5.03) | p < 0.001 | 42.1 (37.0–47.2) | 2.98 (1.99–4.47) | p < 0.001 |
Poorer | 19.9 (16.7–23.5) | 2.64 (1.81–3.86) | p < 0.001 | 16.2 (11.6–21.9) | 1.80 (1.02–3.19) | 0.043 | 19.7 (15.9–24.2) | 2.55 (1.63–3.98) | p < 0.001 |
Middle | 16.5 (13.6–19.9) | 2.63 (1.78–3.88) | p < 0.001 | 8.1 (5.0–12.8) | 1.02 (0.52–1.99) | 0.945 | 12.2 (9.2–16.1) | 1.76 (1.09–2.85) | 0.021 |
Richer | 15.2 (12.4–18.5) | 2.41 (1.63–3.57) | p < 0.001 | 10.6 (7.0–15.7) | 1.39 (0.75–2.58) | 0.298 | 12.2 (9.2–16.0) | 1.81 (1.13–2.92) | 0.014 |
Richest | 13.9 (11.2–17.1) | Ref | 14.6 (10.4–20.3) | Ref | 13.6 (10.4–17.6) | Ref | |||
Toilet facility | |||||||||
Improved | 14.8 (12.0–18.1) | Ref | 16.3 (11.8–22.2) | Ref | 15.8 (12.3–19.9) | Ref | |||
Unimproved | 39.4 (35.4–43.7) | 1.68 (1.21–2.32) | 0.002 | 23.9 (18.5–30.4) | 0.84 (0.51–1.38) | 0.490 | 32.4 (27.7–37.4) | 1.17 (0.80–1.71) | 0.411 |
Open defecation | 45.7 (41.5–50.0) | 1.95 (1.41–2.71) | p < 0.001 | 59.7 (52.6–66.3) | 2.09 (1.34–3.28) | 0.001 | 51.8 (46.6–57.0) | 1.98 (1.37–2.85) | p < 0.001 |
Source of drinking water | |||||||||
Improved | 14.8 (12.0–18.1) | Ref | 16.3 (11.8–22.2) | Ref | 15.8 (12.3–19.9) | Ref | |||
Unimproved | 39.4 (35.4–43.7) | 1.04 (0.76–1.44) | 0.781 | 23.9 (18.5–30.5) | 1.67 (1.10–2.53) | 0.015 | 32.3 (27.8–37.4) | 1.09 (0.78–1.54) | 0.590 |
Surface water | 45.7 (41.5–50.0) | 1.15 (0.85–1.54) | 0.360 | 59.7 (52.6–66.3) | 0.86 (0.55–1.36) | 0.524 | 51.8 (46.6–57.0) | 1.57 (1.12–2.21) | 0.010 |
Community-level factors | |||||||||
Residence | |||||||||
Urban | 15.6 (12.8–18.9) | Ref | 21.2 (16.0–27.5) | Ref | 19.2 (15.4–23.6) | Ref | |||
Rural | 84.4 (81.1–87.2) | 2.31 (1.68–3.17) | p < 0.001 | 78.8 (72.5–83.9) | 1.25 (0.82–1.93) | 0.293 | 80.8 (76.4––84.5) | 1.62 (1.13–2.32) | 0.009 |
Region | |||||||||
City administration | 14.8 (12.1–18.1) | 0.53 (0.38–0.75) | p < 0.001 | 9.5 (6.2–14.5) | 0.48 (0.28–0.84) | 0.009 | 12.2 (9.2–16.7) | 0.47 (0.31–0.71) | p < 0.001 |
Pastoralist | 19.5 (16.4–23.1) | 0.79 (0.56–1.11) | 0.181 | 35.8 (29.4–42.8) | 2.27 (1.52–3.39) | p < 0.001 | 22.8 (18.7–27.5) | 1.07 (0.74–1.56) | 0.696 |
Agrarian | 65.6 (61.4–69.5) | Ref | 54.5 (47.5–61.4) | Ref | 64.9 (59.8–69.7) | Ref | |||
