Figure 1

Flow chart of the classification pipeline. The final dataset from study one was cleaned, and features of interest were extracted (1a). The dataset, which was comprised of all 23 participants’ data, was split into 10 approximately equal folds (1b), with 9 folds used for training and 1 fold used for testing. Candidate models were then trained 10 times until all folds had been used for testing. During the training process, the hyperparameters of each model were optimised using grid search (1c). After training, the models’ cross-validation performance was examined (1d) and the final models and hyperparameters were selected based on the best cross-validation performance (1e). The dataset for study two was prepared using a similar pipeline (i.e., data cleaning) to study one, but was managed independently to prevent data leakage (2a). The dataset for study two was then split into external validation one and two, based on the trial types of the study (fast and slow rise) (2b). All 14 participants in study two contributed to both external validation datasets. Finally, the final models were tested separately on external validation one and two datasets, and model performance (discrimination and calibration) was assessed.