Figure 1

(a) Map showing the plate tectonics around Japan and the sampling sites in this study. The sampling points of the data used in the discussion are also shown as blue points for comparison (for the shape of the symbols, please refer to the legend in Fig. 3). The solid black line indicates the plate boundary, and the dotted black line indicates the volcanic front31,32. The squared area indicates the area shown in (b). (b) Seafloor topographic map of the area around the submarine mud volcano off Tanegashima Island studied in this study. The filled red circle indicates the location of MV1, the filled red triangle indicates MV2, the filled diamond indicates MV3, and the filled red square indicates MV14. Other submarine mud volcanoes are marked by red crosses. The map was drawn using Online Mapping Tools for GMT (https://www.generic-mapping-tools.org/).