Table 1 Effects of mind–body exercise on different neuroimaging outcomes (34 studies, 42 experiments).

From: The neurobiological effects of mind–body exercise: a systematic review and meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies

Reference (year)	Participants’ details				Experimental protocol			Outcome measures				Statistical threshold^b
Reference (year)	Population	N	Mean Age (years)	Sex (M:F)	Mind–body practice	Average duration of practice (years)	Control group	MRI paradigm	MRI analysis	Between-group results^a (rsFC seed; if applicable)	Effect size in d [95%CI]	Statistical threshold^b
Experiments included in the narrative synthesis (26 studies, 29 comparisons)
Chen¹⁵	Healthy	22	52.4	15:7	TCC	14	Passive	Resting	rsFC (ROI-ROI)	↓ R MFG–L MFG (DMN)	0.643 [0.00470, 1.28]	Family-wise-error corrected p < 0.05
Chen¹⁵	Healthy	18	54.8	10:8	TCC	14	Passive	Resting	rsFC (ROI-ROI)	↓ R MFG–L MFG (DMN)	0.643 [0.00470, 1.28]	Family-wise-error corrected p < 0.05
Cui⁶¹	Healthy	12	21.8	2:10	TCC	0.167	Active	Resting	Graph theory network analysis	Nodal clustering coefficient ↑ L thalamus ↑ L olfactory cortex Nodal efficiency ↑ Bilateral posterior cingulate ↑ R cuneus Nodal local efficiency ↑ L thalamus ↑ R olfactory cortex	0.85 [0.01, 1.68]	Cluster-corrected, p < 0.05
Cui⁶¹	Healthy	12	21.8	2:10	TCC	0.167	Active	Resting	Graph theory network analysis		0.85 [0.01, 1.68]	Cluster-corrected, p < 0.05
Froeliger⁷³	Healthy	7	36.4	6:1	Yoga	9.3	Regular physical activity	Resting	VBM	↑ GM volume in frontal, limbic, temporal, occipital, and cerebellar regions	1.16 [0.03, 2.30]	Cluster-corrected, p < 0.05
Froeliger⁷³	Healthy	7	35.5	6:1	Yoga	9.3	Regular physical activity	Resting	VBM		1.16 [0.03, 2.30]	Cluster-corrected, p < 0.05
Froeliger³⁵								Resting	Network-based rsFC	DAN within-network ↑ R anterior IPS–FEF ↑ R anterior IPS–L middle temporal cortex ↑ R posterior IPS–L middle temporal cortex ↑ R middle temporal cortex–L FEF
Froeliger²⁹								(1) Emotional picture viewing task (2) Stroop task with distractor of negative emotion	BOLD activation (ROI)	↓ R dlPFC (negative–neutral) during emotion viewing ↑ L vlPFC (negative–neutral) during Stroop task
Garner⁷⁵	Healthy	39	22.7	5:34	Yoga	0.2	Strengthening/stretching exercise	Resting	VBM	VBM GM change ↓ L insula ↓ R IFG ↓ L IPL, AG	− 0.86 [− 1.44, − 0.28]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Garner⁷⁵	Healthy	32	22.9	1:31	Yoga	0.2	Strengthening/stretching exercise	Resting	VBM	VBM GM change ↓ L insula ↓ R IFG ↓ L IPL, AG	− 0.86 [− 1.44, − 0.28]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Kaur⁷¹	Healthy	13	27.2	6:7	Yoga	3	Active lifestyle	N-back task Stroop	BOLD activation and FC (ROI)	Activation changes 1-back ↑ STG ↑ L inferior semi lunar lobule ↑ Precentral gyrus ↑ Insula ↑ Parahippocampal gyrus 2-back ↑ MTG ↑ Left cerebellar tonsil Color stroop ↑ Inferior occipital gyrus ↑ Precuneus ↑ Parahippocampal gyrus ↑ Inferior semi lunar lobule ↑ Cerebellar tonsil ↑ STG Task-based FC changes 1-back ↑ L lPFC–R cerebellum ↑ R lPFC–R Insula ↓ L IPS–R PCG/R Insula/L cerebellum 2-back ↑ R FEF–L SFG ↑ L PFC–R cerebellum ↑ R IPS–Right R Cuneus cortex Color stroop ↑ FPN	0.81 [0.01, 61]	Family-wise-error corrected p < 0.05
Kaur⁷¹	Healthy	13	28.6	6:7	Yoga	3	Active lifestyle	N-back task Stroop	BOLD activation and FC (ROI)		0.81 [0.01, 61]	Family-wise-error corrected p < 0.05
Li⁶⁴	Parkinson’s disease	32	62.7	17:15	TCC	1	Walking	Resting	Resting-state network connectivity	↑ Visual network associated with better functional balance performance	0.60 [0.0035, 1.20]	Voxel-wise corrected p < 0.05
Li⁶⁴	Parkinson’s disease	17	n.r.	n.r.	TCC	1	Walking	Resting	Resting-state network connectivity		0.60 [0.0035, 1.20]	Voxel-wise corrected p < 0.05
Liu¹⁰⁰	Osteoarthritis	28	n.r.	6:22	TCC	0.25	Cycling	Resting	Seed to whole-brain rsFC	PAG as seed ↑ L PAG–R MTG ↑ R PAG– R AG ↑ R PAG–L MTG ↓ L PAG–R MFG ↓ L PAG–L PCG ↓ R PAG–R mPFC ↓ R PAG–R NAc ↓ R PAG–bil. ACC	0.54 [0.0028, 1.08]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
		27		4:23	TCC	0.25	Cycling	Resting	Seed to whole-brain rsFC		0.54 [0.0028, 1.08]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
		29	n.r.	5:24	BDJ	0.25	Cycling	Resting	Seed to whole-brain rsFC	PAG as seed ↑ R PAG–PAG–R AG ↓ R PAG–R mPFC	0.54 [0.0027, 1.07]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
		27		4:23	BDJ	0.25	Cycling	Resting	Seed to whole-brain rsFC	PAG as seed ↑ R PAG–PAG–R AG ↓ R PAG–R mPFC	0.54 [0.0027, 1.07]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Liu⁷²	Healthy	27	65.1	10:17	TCC	10.0	Regular physical activity	Sequential decision task	BOLD activation and FC (ROI)	↑Fronto-striatal connectivity	0.55 [0.00290, 1.10]	Family-wise correction, p < 0.05
Liu⁷²	Healthy	26	64.2	10:16	TCC	10.0	Regular physical activity	Sequential decision task	BOLD activation and FC (ROI)	↑Fronto-striatal connectivity	0.55 [0.00290, 1.10]	Family-wise correction, p < 0.05
Liu⁶²	MCI	20	66.2	5:15	BDJ	0.5	Walking	Resting	Seed to whole-brain rsFC	LC as seed ↑ L LC–R dlPFC ↑ R LC–R ACC ↓ L LC–Bilateral cerebellum exterior ↓ R LC–R inferior occipital cortex ↓ R LC–Bilateral precentral cortex ↓ R LC–Bilateral postcentral cortex ↓ R LC–L middle occipital cortex ↓ R LC–R cerebellum VTA as seed ↑ L VTA–Bilateral ACC ↑ R VTA–R TPJ	0.99 [0.304, 1.67]	Voxel-wise Uncorrected, p < 0.005
Liu⁶²	MCI	17	64.3	7:10	BDJ	0.5	Walking	Resting	Seed to whole-brain rsFC		0.99 [0.304, 1.67]	Voxel-wise Uncorrected, p < 0.005
Port⁹⁷	Healthy	8	66.4	3:5 3:5	TCC	17.4	Regular physical activity	(1) n-back task (2) Stroop task	BOLD activation (whole-brain)	n-back ↓ R frontal pole ↓ SFG Stroop ↓ R intralcalcarine cortex ↓ Lateral occipital cortex ↓ Occipital pole	1.07 [0.024, 2.12]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Port⁹⁷	Healthy	8	66.4		TCC	17.4	Regular physical activity	(1) n-back task (2) Stroop task	BOLD activation (whole-brain)		1.07 [0.024, 2.12]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Shen³⁷	Healthy	12	21.8	2:10	TCC	0.16	Brisk walking	Resting	fALFF	↑ Lateral medial SFG ↑ R FFG ↓ R dorsal SFG ↓ R PCL	0.85 [0.0114, 1.68]	Family-wise-error corrected p < 0.05
Shen³⁷	Healthy	12	21.8	2:10	TCC	0.16	Brisk walking	Resting	fALFF	↑ Lateral medial SFG ↑ R FFG ↓ R dorsal SFG ↓ R PCL	0.85 [0.0114, 1.68]	Family-wise-error corrected p < 0.05
Tao⁶³	Healthy	21	62.4	8:13	TCC	0.25	Regular physical activity	Resting	Seed to whole-brain rsFC	↑ Bilateral hippocampus–Bilateral mPFC	0.597 [0.00370, 1.19]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Tao⁶³		25	59.8	6:19	TCC	0.25				↑ Bilateral hippocampus–Bilateral mPFC	0.597 [0.00370, 1.19]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Tao⁶³		16	62.2	6:10	BDJ	0.25				↑ Bilateral hippocampus–Bilateral mPFC	0.648 [0.00460, 1.29]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Tao⁶³		25	59.8	6:19	BDJ	0.25				↑ Bilateral hippocampus–Bilateral mPFC	0.648 [0.00460, 1.29]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Tao³⁰	Healthy	21	62.4	8:13	TCC	0.25	Regular physical activity	Resting	fALFF	↑ dlPFC (slow-5 and low-frequency)	0.597 [0.00370, 1.19]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Tao³⁰		25	59.8	6:19	TCC	0.25				↑ dlPFC (slow-5 and low-frequency)	0.597 [0.00370, 1.19]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Tao³⁰		15	62.3	6:9	BDJ	0.25				↑ Bilateral mPFC (slow-5 and low-frequency)	0.661 95% C.I. [0.00490, 1.32]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.005
Tao³⁰		25	59.8	6:19	BDJ	0.25				↑ Bilateral mPFC (slow-5 and low-frequency)	0.661 95% C.I. [0.00490, 1.32]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.005
Tao³⁸	MCI	20	66.2	5:15	BDJ	0.25	Walking	Resting	VBM, fALFF, seed to whole-brain rsFC	VBM GM volume changes ↑ R hippocampus fALFF changes ↑ mPFC (slow-4) ↑ dlPFC (slow-4) ↑ Bilateral ACC (slow-5) ↓ Bilateral lingual gyrus (slow-4) ↓ L hippocampus (slow-4) ↓ R STG rsFC changes ↑ R hippocampus–L mPFC ↑ R hippocampus–R angular gyrus	0.988 [0.304, 1.67]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Tao³⁸	MCI	17	64.3	7:10	BDJ	0.25	Walking	Resting	VBM, fALFF, seed to whole-brain rsFC		0.988 [0.304, 1.67]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Wadden⁷⁰	Healthy	19	35.9	3:16	Yoga	0.5	Regular physical activity	Emotional/non-emotional video viewing Happiness sadness anger	BOLD activation (whole-brain)	↑ L SPL ↑R anterior supramarginal gyrus ↑ Postcentral gyrus	1.12 [0.189, 1.67]	Voxel-wise uncorrected, p < 0.005
Wadden⁷⁰	Healthy	12	32.6	6:6	Yoga	0.5	Regular physical activity		BOLD activation (whole-brain)	↑ L SPL ↑R anterior supramarginal gyrus ↑ Postcentral gyrus	1.12 [0.189, 1.67]	Voxel-wise uncorrected, p < 0.005
Wan⁹⁸	Subclinical (cognitive decline)	26	67.4	9:17	BDJ	0.5	Regular physical activity	Resting	GM (ROI)	GM change ↑ R CA1 ↑ R presubiculum ↑ L parasubiculum	0.57 [0.00320, 1.135]	Cluster-corrected, p < 0.05
Wan⁹⁸	Subclinical (cognitive decline)	24	64.7	12:12	BDJ	0.5	Regular physical activity	Resting	GM (ROI)	GM change ↑ R CA1 ↑ R presubiculum ↑ L parasubiculum	0.57 [0.00320, 1.135]	Cluster-corrected, p < 0.05
Wei⁶⁵	Healthy	18	52.4	7:11	TCC	14.6	Sedentary lifestyle	Resting	ReHo	↓ L ACC ↓R SFC of dlPFC ↑ R postcentral gyrus	0.643 [0.00470, 1.28]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Wei⁶⁵	Healthy	22	54.8	8:14	TCC	14.6	Sedentary lifestyle	Resting	ReHo	↓ L ACC ↓R SFC of dlPFC ↑ R postcentral gyrus	0.643 [0.00470, 1.28]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Wei³⁹	Healthy	18	52.4	7:11	TCC	14.6	Sedentary lifestyle	Resting	fALFF	↓ DMN ↓ Bilateral FPN ↓ Anterior cingulate-FPN network	0.643 [0.00470, 1.28]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Wei³⁹	Healthy	22	54.8	8:14	TCC	14.6	Sedentary lifestyle	Resting	fALFF	↓ DMN ↓ Bilateral FPN ↓ Anterior cingulate-FPN network	0.643 [0.00470, 1.28]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Woodward⁷⁶	Early psychosis	21	21.5	0:21	Yoga	0.25	Aerobic exercise	Resting	GM (ROI)	Aerobic exercise > yoga: bilateral fusiform GM volume	0.65 [0.00490, 1.30]	p < 0.05
Woodward⁷⁶	Early psychosis	18	22.3	0:18	Yoga	0.25	Aerobic exercise	Resting	GM (ROI)	Aerobic exercise > yoga: bilateral fusiform GM volume	0.65 [0.00490, 1.30]	p < 0.05
Wu⁸	Healthy	16	64.9	3:13	TCC	0.25	Regular physical activity	Task-switching paradigm	BOLD activation (whole-brain, ROI)	↑ L SFG ↑ R MFG	1.09 [0.337, 1.85]	Family-wise-error corrected p < 0.005
Wu⁸	Healthy	15	64.9	0:15	TCC	0.25	Regular physical activity	Task-switching paradigm	BOLD activation (whole-brain, ROI)	↑ L SFG ↑ R MFG	1.09 [0.337, 1.85]	Family-wise-error corrected p < 0.005
Yue³²	Healthy	20	62.9	0:20	TCC	16.6	Walking	Resting	VBM, ReHo	VBM GM volume changes ↑ R ITG, L hippocampus and L cerebellum ReHo changes: ↑L hippocampus ↑ Fusiform gyrus	1.10 [0.448, 1.75]	voxel-wise uncorrected, p < 0.001
Yue³²	Healthy	22	62.4	0:22	TCC	16.6	Walking	Resting	VBM, ReHo		1.10 [0.448, 1.75]	voxel-wise uncorrected, p < 0.001
Yue³¹	Healthy	20	62.9	0:20	TCC	6	Walking	Resting	Graph theory network analysis	White matter network ↑ normalized clustering coefficient ↑ characteristic path length	0.624 [0.00430, 1.24]	(Correction not mentioned), p < 0.05
Yue³¹	Healthy	22	62.4	0:22	TCC	6	Walking	Resting	Graph theory network analysis		0.624 [0.00430, 1.24]	(Correction not mentioned), p < 0.05
Zhang⁹⁹	Subclinical (mood/anxiety symptoms)	9	24.2	2:7	TCC	0.17	Regular physical activity	Resting	fALFF	fALFF changes ↑ R MFG (orbital part) ↑ R MTG (temporal pole) ↑ R MOG	1.00 [0.0194, 1.98]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Zhang⁹⁹	Subclinical (mood/anxiety symptoms)	9	22.5	3:6	TCC	0.17	Regular physical activity	Resting	fALFF		1.00 [0.0194, 1.98]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Zheng ⁷⁴	MCI	23	65.8	6:17	BDJ	0.5	Walking	Resting	VBM	VBM GM volume changes ↑ R PCG ↑ R MOG	0.78 [0.193, 1.394]	Voxel-wise corrected, p < 0.01
Zheng ⁷⁴	MCI	23	64.9	11:12	BDJ	0.5	Walking	Resting	VBM	VBM GM volume changes ↑ R PCG ↑ R MOG	0.78 [0.193, 1.394]	Voxel-wise corrected, p < 0.01
Experiments included in the meta-analysis (8 studies, 13 comparisons)
Liu³⁴	Healthy	28	58.6	n.r.	TCC	0.25	Waitlist control	Resting	Seed to whole-brain rsFC	Bilateral dlPFC (MNI coordinates: ± 36,27,29; FPN)	0.559 [0.00300, 1.11]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Liu³⁴		24	56.9		TCC					Bilateral dlPFC (MNI coordinates: ± 36,27,29; FPN)	0.559 [0.00300, 1.11]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Liu³⁴		29	59.7		BDJ					Bilateral dlPFC (MNI coordinates: ± 36,27,29; FPN)	0.554 [0.00300, 1.11]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Liu³⁴		24	56.9		BDJ					Bilateral dlPFC (MNI coordinates: ± 36,27,29; FPN)	0.554 [0.00300, 1.11]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Liu³⁴		28	58.6		TCC		Walking			Bilateral dlPFC (MNI coordinates: ± 36,27,29; FPN)	0.559 [0.00300, 1.11]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Liu³⁴		27	61.3		TCC					Bilateral dlPFC (MNI coordinates: ± 36,27,29; FPN)	0.559 [0.00300, 1.11]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Liu³⁴		29	59.7		BDJ					Bilateral dlPFC (MNI coordinates: ± 36,27,29; FPN)	0.554 [0.00300, 1.11]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Liu³⁴		27	61.3		BDJ					Bilateral dlPFC (MNI coordinates: ± 36,27,29; FPN)	0.554 [0.00300, 1.11]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Liu⁴⁰		21	62.4	8:13	TCC		Waitlist control			PCC (MNI coordinates: -2, -36, 37; DMN) mPFC (MNI coordinates: 1, 54, 21; DMN)	0.597 [0.00370, 1.19]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Liu⁴⁰		25	60.1	6:19	TCC						0.597 [0.00370, 1.19]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Liu⁴⁰		16	62.2	6:10	BDJ						0.65 [0.00460, 1.29]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Liu⁴⁰		25	60.1	6:19	BDJ						0.65 [0.00460, 1.29]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Liu⁶⁶		16	65.19	8:18	TCC	10.4	Regular physical activity			dlPFC (MNI coordinates: 36,27,29; FPN)	0.95 [0.292, 1.61]	Voxel-wise uncorrected, p < 0.005
Liu⁶⁶		25	63.92	9:16	TCC	10.4				dlPFC (MNI coordinates: 36,27,29; FPN)	0.95 [0.292, 1.61]	Voxel-wise uncorrected, p < 0.005
Tao³⁶		21	62.38	8:13	TCC	0.25				Bilateral dlPFC (MNI coordinates: ± 36.27.29; FPN) Bilateral dlPFC (MNI coordinates: ± 36.27.29; FPN)	0.597 [0.00370, 1.19]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Tao³⁶		25	59.76	6:19	TCC						0.597 [0.00370, 1.19]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Tao³⁶		16	62.33	6:9	BDJ						0.648 [0.00460, 1.29]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Tao³⁶		25	59.76	6:19	BDJ						0.648 [0.00460, 1.29]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.05
Santaella⁶⁷		20	68.2	0:20	Yoga	15.1				PCC (MNI coordinates: 1, − 61, 38; DMN) mPFC (MNI coordinates: 1, 55, − 3; DMN)	0.640 [0.00470, 1.28]	Family-wise-error corrected p < 0.05
Santaella⁶⁷		20	66.5	0:20	Yoga	15.1					0.640 [0.00470, 1.28]	Family-wise-error corrected p < 0.05
Singleton⁶⁸		16	49.4	5:11	Yoga	18.3				PCC (MNI coordinates: − 9.6, − 51.3, 27.5; DMN)	0.956 [0.235, 1.68]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.01
Singleton⁶⁸		17	52.5	7:10	Yoga	18.3				PCC (MNI coordinates: − 9.6, − 51.3, 27.5; DMN)	0.956 [0.235, 1.68]	Cluster-corrected p < 0.01
van Aalst³³		10	36.8	2:8	Yoga	4.8	Stationary cycling		WHOLE-brain rsFC	DMN (MNI coordinates: not specific) DMN (MNI coordinates: not specific)	1.75 [0.723, 2.79]	Voxel-wise uncorrected, p < 0.001
van Aalst³³		10	34.6	2:8	Yoga	4.8	Stationary cycling				1.75 [0.723, 2.79]	Voxel-wise uncorrected, p < 0.001
Yue⁶⁹		20	62.9	0:20	TCC	6	Walking				0.624 [0.00430, 1.24]	Family-wise-error corrected p < 0.05
Yue⁶⁹		22	63.3	0:22	TCC	6	Walking				0.624 [0.00430, 1.24]	Family-wise-error corrected p < 0.05

N number of participants, TCC Tai Chi Chung, BDJ Baduanjin, VBM voxel-based morphometry, GM grey matter, VMHC voxel-mirrored homotopic connectivity, ReHo regional homogeneity, fALFF fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations, BOLD blood-oxygen-level-dependent, rsFC resting-state functional connectivity, ROI regions of interest, DTI diffusion tensor imaging, DMN default mode network, DAN dorsal attention network, FPN frontoparietal network, SN salience network, MFG middle frontal gyrus, MFC medial frontal cortex, PFC prefrontal cortex, aPFC anterior prefrontal cortex, lPFC lateral prefrontal cortex, mPFC medial prefrontal cortex, dmPFC dorsal medial prefrontal cortex, dlPFC dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex, vlPFC ventral lateral prefrontal cortex, SFG superior frontal gyrus, ACC anterior cingulate cortex, PCC posterior cingulate cortex, IPS intraparietal sulcus, SPL superior parietal lobule, FEF frontal eye field, STG superior temporal gyrus, MTG middle temporal gyrus, ITG inferior temporal gyrus, LC locus coeruleus, VTA ventral tegmental area, FFG fusiform gyrus, PCL paracentral lobule, PCG precentral gyrus, AG angular gyrus, PAG periaqueductal gray, NAc nucleus accumbens, n.r. not reported.
^aStatistically significant results only; contrast of interest: mind-body practice group > control group, unless otherwise specified.

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Table 1 Effects of mind–body exercise on different neuroimaging outcomes (34 studies, 42 experiments).

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