Table 2 Device parameters set in the simulation.

Interface defect density²⁰

 IDL1 (ETL/Active) defect density

\({10}^{9} {\mathrm{cm}}^{-2}\)

 IDL2 (Active/HTL) defect density

\({10}^{9} {\mathrm{cm}}^{-2}\)

Back metal contact properties^51,52

 The electron work function of Au

−5.1 eV

 Surface recombination velocity of the electron

\({ 10}^{5}\mathrm{ cm}/\mathrm{s}\)

 Surface recombination velocity of hole

\({10}^{7}\mathrm{ cm}/\mathrm{s}\)

Front metal contact properties^51,52

 The electron work function of TCO

−4.4 eV

 Surface recombination velocity of the electron

\({10}^{7}\mathrm{ cm}/\mathrm{s}\)

 Surface recombination velocity of hole

\({ 10}^{5}\mathrm{ cm}/\mathrm{s}\)