Figure 4
From: Lower serum testosterone is associated with increased likelihood of arthritis
Androgens and bone. Bone metabolism is strongly regulated by androgen receptor (AR) and estrogen receptor (ER) activation. Androgens such as testosterone, after aromatization to 17β-estradiol, bind directly to AR and ER and activate them. AR activation can stimulate osteoblast proliferation and block osteoclast activity, thereby inducing bone formation. On the contrary, ER activation inhibits osteoclast proliferation and stimulates its apoptosis, thereby inhibiting bone.
