Figure 1

Maps showing the location of Hawaii and the research area. (A) Landsat image of the Big Island, Hawaii, and the five volcanoes of which Mauna Loa is the largest (white zone). Eruptions derive from the caldera, the Northeast Rift Zone (NERZ) and the Southwest Rift Zone (SWRZ). The research area lies on the north-eastern flank of Mauna Loa (red square). The image is from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (B) An overview of the research area near the HI-SEAS habitat with the lava tube systems, mapped skylights (green dots), mapped lava tube entrances (red dots) and sample locations (digitized on Google Hybrid map layer). 'Āinakahiko Tube (red), 'Āinahou Tube (orange) and Columbus Tube (white). The map has been produced with the open source software Geographic Information System (GIS) 3.12 (https://www.qgis.org/en/site/). (C) Geological map of the lava flows in the research area (modified from Trusdell and Zoeller, 2017). The Black line adjacent to the habitat represents the fissure ridge.