Table 2 Association between psychological distress and never voting (not having voted in the past and planning not to vote in the future) in nine countries of the former Soviet Union (N = 15,672^a).

Psychological distress

1.75 (1.43–2.15)***

1.70 (1.38–2.10)***

1.68 (1.35–2.08)***

1.61 (1.29–2.01)***

1.52 (1.21–1.89)***

Sex (woman)

1.05 (0.95–1.16)

1.05 (0.95–1.16)

1.06 (0.96–1.18)

1.11 (1.00–1.23)*

Age

 18–34

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

 35–59

0.74 (0.65–0.84)***

0.75 (0.66–0.85)***

0.73 (0.65–0.84)***

0.74 (0.65–0.84)***

 ≥ 60

0.50 (0.41–0.59)***

0.50 (0.41–0.60)***

0.49 (0.40–0.59)***

0.54 (0.44–0.65)***

Education

 High

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

 Mid

1.31 (1.16–1.48)***

1.31 (1.16–1.48)***

1.29 (1.14–1.45)***

1.35 (1.19–1.52)***

 Low

1.64 (1.36–1.97)***

1.63 (1.35–1.95)***

1.56 (1.30–1.88)***

1.73 (1.44–2.09)***

Marital status

 Married/cohabiting

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

 Never married

1.25 (1.09–1.44)**

1.25 (1.08–1.43)**

1.23 (1.07–1.41)**

1.23 (1.07–1.42)**

 Divorced/widowed

1.26 (1.07–1.47)**

1.26 (1.07–1.47)**

1.19 (1.02–1.40)*

1.20 (1.02–1.40)*

Household finances

 Good/very good

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

 Average

1.03 (0.91–1.18)

1.04 (0.92–1.19)

1.03 (0.91–1.18)

0.96 (0.84–1.10)

 Bad/very bad

1.39 (1.17–1.64)***

1.39 (1.17–1.65)***

1.29 (1.09–1.53)**

1.08 (0.90–1.28)

Live alone

1.12 (0.92–1.36)

1.11 (0.91–1.35)

1.04 (0.85–1.26)

1.06 (0.86–1.29)

Location (rural)

0.72 (0.64–0.80)***

0.72 (0.64–0.80)***

0.71 (0.63–0.79)***

0.74 (0.67–0.83)***

Self-rated health

 Good/very good

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

 Fair

0.93 (0.82–1.05)

0.93 (0.83–1.05)

0.90 (0.79–1.01)

 Poor/very poor

1.01 (0.86–1.20)

1.01 (0.85–1.20)

0.98 (0.82–1.16)

Low social support

1.92 (1.65–2.24)***

1.84 (1.57–2.14)***

Political distrust

1.17 (1.14–1.20)***