Figure 4

Heterogeneous effects of wind farm on PBP as a function of distance. Note: Vertical axis represents each distance range in kilometers and the horizontal axis represents each index of PBP. (a) Depicts the dynamic effects of wind farm on PBP by distance. For each indicator, estimates of five temporal phases are reported by distance: “ − 6 to 0 months” or “ − 1 year,” indicating half a year or one year prior to full wind farm installation; “1st,” “2nd,” “3rd,” and “ > 3 year,” representing one, two, three years, or more than three years post full installation of the wind farm. (b) Illustrates the seasonal heterogeneous effects of wind farm on PBP. For each indicator, estimates for the “post” phase in subsamples of the four seasons are reported by distance: “March to May” (Spring), “June to August” (Summer), “September to November” (Autumn), and “December to February” (Winter). (c) Represents the heterogeneous effects of wind farm elevation on PBP. For each indicator, estimates for the “post” phase in subsamples of three elevation (EL) ranges are reported by distance: “EL less than 500 m,” “EL between 500 and 1,500 m,” and “EL greater than 1500 m.” (d) Denotes the heterogeneous effects of wind farm land type on PBP. For each indicator, estimates for the “post” phase in subsamples of five different land types are reported by distance: “Plain,” “Terrace,” "Hill," "Low relief mountain," and "Intermediate relief mountain." Different bubbles represent normalized [0,1] values of estimated coefficients based on different plant indicators. The coefficients of all heterogeneity groups and 12 zones for each indicator are normalized as one group (and separated by dashed lines), so the size of the coefficients within each group is comparable, while bubbles between indicators are not comparable, and negative coefficients will inevitably have smaller bubbles than positive ones. Bubble color transitions from dark to light signify varying levels of statistical significance; darkest representing significant at 1%, followed by 5%, and 10%; blank indicates non-significance at the 10% statistical level. This figure reveals the heterogeneity of the wind farm’s interstitial effects on each indicator, the differences in distance, and the relative size variations of the coefficients. All regressions include the same explanatory variables, including NDVI, EVI, FPAR, LAI, GPP, NP, NPP, PTC, PNTV, and PNV. Different shades from black to light represent different levels of statistical significance, with black representing a 1% level of statistical significance. The absolute values of the specific effects can be found in the corresponding Supplementary tables.